1

I^LiBRARY OF Congress, ii

Chap. „_G-B-1(1^

Shelf. l}^-^Jj.^-.

- m.

m^yJMTED STATES OF AMERICA.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA-COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE.
C^.^^ . AGEIOULTUEAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

REPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS

WATERS, WATER SUPPLY,

AND RELATED SUBJECTS,

DURINQ THK YEARS 1886=89.

By E. W. HILGARD,

Professor of Agriculture and Director of the Station.

'^^(&M

ADVANCE SHEETS FROM THE COMBINED REPORTS FOR 1888 AND 1889.

SACRAMENTO:

STATE OFFICE,

J. D. YOUNG, SUPT. STATE PRINTING.
1889.

I.

6

LC Control Niomber

tmp96 026242

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

Introductory Note - 7

Circular Concerning Analyses of Waters — 9

The Softening of Hard Waters for Domestic Use 11

Analyses of Waters. ,- - 13

A. Common Wells - 13

From St. Helena; L. Zierngibl 13

From Mission Hills, San Francisco; B. Strozynski. 13

From North Berkeley (tank water) ; Dr. M. C. O'Toole 14

From North Berkeley (creek water); same 14

From North Berkeley (well water); same 15

From Saratoga, Santa Clara County ; G. E. Binder ..- 15

From Saratoga, Santa Clara County ; G.E.Hyde 16

From San Jos6; B. 0. Burns Wine Company (well water) 16

From San Jose; B. O. Burns Wine Company (boiler water)- 16

From San Jose; B. 0. Burns Wine Company (spring water) 17

From Fresno ; Thomas E. Hughes. , 18

From Bolonio Bass; John R. Carr 18

From Alpine Station, Los Angeles County ; H. Slotterbeck 18

From Fulton Wells, Los Angeles County; W. F. Nimmocks 19

From Riverside; Henry Jarecki , 20

From San Bernardino; Mrs. C. M. Davis... 20

From Alturas Ranch, San Diego County ; CaveJ. Couts 20

B. Spring Waters 21

From Baradise, Butte County ; Irving A. Coonradt 21

From Oakville, Napa County ; John Benson 22

From Vacaviile ; J. R. Collins 22

From Applegate (Oakland ranch), Blacer County; A. T. Berkins. 22

Prom Livermore Mountains; M. M. MendenhalL i. 23

From Los Gatos; F. H. McCullagh. 23

From Skyland, Santa Cruz Mountains; Augusta C. H. Weber. 24

From Hollister, San Benito County; James McMahon 24

From Bryson, Monterey County; D. Sturges. 25

From Coulterville, Mariposa County; Bhilip Hope. 25

From Camulos, Ventura County; D. C. Cook 25

From Coast Range foothills, Tulare County; L. L. Robinson 26

C. Mineral Waters 26

From Mt. Lassen Springs, Blumas County; E. R. Drake... 26

From Sonoma Hot Springs, H. E. Boyes 27

From Samuel's Napa Soda Springs, Napa Countj' 27

From Milton, Calaveras County; George W. Gilmore 28

From Ojai Hot Springs, Nordhoff, Ventura County 28

D. Artesian Waters- 28

From Beckwith, Blumas County; Thomas Black 1 28

From Batterson's Landing; William Ryan. 29

From Borden, Fresno County; A. L. Sayre 29

From Carpinteria, Santa Barbara County; T. W.Ward ^ 30

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

From Carpi nteria; P.O. Higgins 30

From " The Palms," San Diego County ; Howard & Atwater 31

E. River and Irrigation Waters 31

From Carmel River, Monterey County ; 31

From Owen's River, Independence Station; Emmet Rixford. 32

The Water Supply of the San Bernardino ValtLey. 32

The upper San Bernardino Valley 32

Cienegas 33

Flood plain of the Santa Ana River 33

The Victoria Cienega. 33

Development by Mr. Matthew Gage 33-34

Surface and surface waters 34

Natural springs - 34

Origin of Warm Creek 34

Artesian Wells 35

Materials penetrated 35

Proper size of pipes 35

Details of water discharge 35

Group "A" 36

Group "B" 36

Group "C" 36

Group "D" - --- .-.. 37

Interdependence of these Wells — 37

Experiments on mutual interference 37-38

"Local Head" 38

The Substrata of the Valley 39

Source of the Water Supply 39

Absorption of water at mouth of canon. 40

Cobble beds of Santa Ana and Mill Creek Cafions 40

No gravel from San Timoteo Canon 40

Smaller affluents — Plunge, City,and Lytle Creeks 40

Possible Production! from a given Area 40

Coincident of ancient and modern channels 41

Was there a stream down the main valley 41

Chemical Composition of the Waters - - 42

Table of Analyses — Artesian Wells, Warm Creek 42

Small amount of Mineral Salts. 43

Importance of Potash contained ; value of same 43

Cienegas of the Chino Ranch and Pomona Slope 43

The Lakes of the San Joaquin Valley 44

Rapid Evaporation 44

Condition in 1880 44

Dying of Fish in Kern Lake 44

Buena Vista Lake 44

Tulare Lake 45

Comparative Analyses of Waters 45

Sea Water and Lake Water Salts ., 45

Condition of Tulare Water in 1888 45

Analysis of the Water 46

Rate of concentration and survival of fish 46

Condition of Tulare Lake in Winter 1888-89 46

"Fish Dying by Shoals " 46

TABLE OP CONTENTS. 5

Page.

Expedition of Mr. J. G. Woodbury 46

Description of Cross Creek fisheries 46

Voracity of hake Perch 46

Retirement of Catfish to the Sloughs. 47

Circumnavigation of the Lake — its depth and channel 47

Character of the Water 47

Abundance of Mussel Shells 47

Character of the lake-shore lands 47

The future of the Lake. 47

Previous epoch of low water 47

Eesults of Draining the Lake 47

Present composition of Tulare Lake water .. 48

Table of Composition 48

Composition of the Water at different Periods. 48

Comparative Table. 48

Great progress of concentration during 1888.. 49

Possible inflow of Alkali 49

Alternatives in regulating the Lake 49

Examination of Lake-border Soils.- 49

Mechanical and Chemical Analyses 49-50

Need of Fallow and Neutralization of Alkali 50

Different condition of soils at different points 51

Investigations on the Peoximate Composition of the Saline Contents of Waters

AND OF Natural Alkali 51

" On the Mutual Reactions of Carbonates, Sulphates and Chlorides of the Alkaline

Earths and Alkalies" 51

Early observations on the subject 52

Neglect of these observations, and practical importance of the same 52

Verification of previous experiments, and new forms of same 53-54

Paradoxical lecture experiment . 54

Quantitative experiments, showing limits of complete reaction 54-55

Behavior of Alkali Chlorides 55

Wide importance of these reactions 56

Table showing their effect in Kern and Tulare Lakes 56

Great possible variations of conditions 57

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.

In view of the continued great pressure of personal work upon the Direct-
or, and the resulting delay or forced omission of the timely publication of
the annual reports and even of bulletins, it is deemed advisable to change
the policy pursued heretofore, at least for the time being, and to publish
separately the parts of the report as fast as they can be prepared for pub-
lication.

Thus far, two series of publications have been issued by this depart-
ment (embracing the instructional as well as the experimental work), to
wit: Annual or biennial reports, in which all the matter accumulated since
the closing of the previous report was systematically set forth and fully
discussed; and bulletins, in which special subjects of immediate interest
were treated in a rather brief and popular manner, and which were origi-
nally designed chiefly for publication in the newspapers of the State, but
also circulated extensively by direct mailing to applicants or others known
to be interested. These bulletins were not put in paged form, not being
intended for permanent preservation, since their contents were to be repro-
duced in a more complete and final form in the next succeeding report.

Some of the earlier stations have pursued the same policy, until the
enactment of the Hatch bill freed them from the payment of postage, and
they were thus enabled to circulate their publications at a merely nominal
cost, thus reaching directly the persons interested. The newly established
stations appear to have almost unanimously adopted the policy of publish-
ing in full every series of experiments as soon as concluded, in the (pre-
sumed) final form of octavo pamphlets; and having once gone to the
expense of printing these, it is presumable that they will not reproduce
them in the form of annual reports.

While in some respects this mode of publication has its advantages and
is most convenient for the stations, the omission of the brief summaries
followed by the practical conclusions to be drawn from the work, and which
readily found a place even in the daily papers, but very generally in the
weeklies, cuts off a kind of communication with the bulk of the population
that cannot readily be replaced by the direct circulation of the paged and
more elaborate and lengthy reports now mostly issued under the name of
bulletins. They could not find a place in the newspapers unless previously
"boiled down," a process which in the case of technical papers is not often
accurately or properly performed in a newspaper ofiice, and the paged form
adds to the repugnance of the printer toward its reproduction.

It may then be fairly questioned whether the abandonment of the brief
summaries suited to publication in the general newspapers, and the sub-
stitution therefor of the full record, often ill adapted to the comprehension
of unprofessional readers, is an improvement so far as the popular under-
standing and availability of the work of the station is concerned. More-
over, the more ambitious form of a pamphlet discourages the publication
of much timely matter which in transient form it should not be deemed
beneath the dignity of the stations to impart to the public.

In pursuance of this view, this station is not yet prepared to abandon the
first plan of transient bulletins; distinct in their nature and object from the

b REPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS OP

final report, which is to be made up annually at least, in the permanent
form of octavo pamphlets, and to contain a full record and connected dis-
cussion of the matter of the bulletins previously published, as well as all
other matter of interest that may have remained unpublished on account
of unsuitableness for the general public. It is thought that thus, without
incurring unnecessary delay in the publication of practically important mat-
ter, a well matured and fruitful discussion of experiments and results can
best be assured.

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY.

EXAMINATION OF WATERS.

The investigations of waters and of questions relating to water supply,
that form the subject of the present publication, while serving to illustrate
and elucidate the importance and variety of the various phases of the sub-
ject in this State, might with some create an impression that, as so many
questions are asked and such frequent doubts of the' quality of the waters
are expressed, a lack of really drinkable waters may be characteristic of
the State at large. This, however, would be an entirely erroneous infer-
ence. It is true that the "arid" climate of California tends to the retention
in the soils of a great deal of the soluble salts that in the Mississippi Val-
ley are currently washed into the country drainage by the abundant rain-
fall; and hence "mineral" waters are very abundant On the whole, there
is very little difficulty in securing supplies of good, potable water outside
of the "desert" regions; but the doubtful samples find their way to the
station laboratory and are thus gazetted, while the abundant supplies of
pure water remain unheralded.

The following circular was issued in order to define the scope of the
Station's work, and to insure a full understanding on the part of persons
desiring such investigations, of the conditions necessary to secure correct
results:

CIRCULAR CONCERNING ANALYSES OP WATERS.

Ageicultukal Experiment Station, )
Berkeley, Cal., March 30, 1889. J

The frequency with which analyses of water of various kinds are called for, renders it
desirable to formulate special directions for the taking of proper samples, and also to state
what the Station can and can not undertake to do in the direction of water investigation.
Our working force being limited, it becomes necessary to discriminate somewhat closely
between cases of merely individual interest, and those which may be considered as more
or less affecting a wider circle, or the public at large.

Of the latter class of cases, those involving irrigation water and the water supply of
towns or cities, are of such wide importance that the Station will undertake to carry the
analyses to the limit required by the objects in view.

The waters of artesian wells, forming outlets of extended artesian reservoirs, which may
be still further tapped and used for irrigation or household purposes, manifestly fall
within the same category.

Of the above classes of water, therefore, both " qualitative " and " quantitative " analyses,
sufficiently detailed for all practical purposes, will be made upon request, as rapidly as
they can be reached upon the regular docket.

The waters of private wells and small springs, interesting only the owners, will, as a
rule, be analyzed " qualitatively " only, so far as to determine their healthfulness or adap-
tation for domestic use ; except that in all cases the total quantity of solid ingredients,
and the proportion of earthy and saline (permanently soluble) matters will be deter-
mined. These determinations will, as a rule, be amply sutficient to decide whether or not
such waters are suitable for the uses contemplated, and, if faulty, to determine the means,
if any, for improving their quality. Waters suspected of sewage contamination will also
be investigated with respect to their contents of improper ingredients of animal origin.

The analysis of supposed medicinal waters will, as a rule, be carried only so far as to
determine if they are likely to prove of value, so that the sender may decide whether or
not it may be worth while to go farther and incur the expense of a detailed quantitative
analysis for commercial purposes. The Station does not undertake the latter class of work
under any ordinary circumstances.

When for special reasons persons interested desire to have work, not included in the
above categories, done under the supervision of the Director, it may usually be done
by competent volunteers temporarily employed for the purpose, when" such persons are
available; the charges to be agreed upon between them and the applicant.

10 REPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

Mode of Taking Samples. — Since the value of any analysis is essentially dependent upon
the correct sampling of the material, the following directions should be carefully observed
when waters are sent for examination :

1. Not less than two wine bottles of the water should be sent in any case. An ample
supply of material not only greatly facilitates the chemist's work, but also enables him to
control at once, by repetition, any unexpected or questionable result he majr have obtained.

2. Of irrigation or any other waters intended for quantitative analysis, at least two gallons
should be sent in every case. Such samples should be put up in new, or very carefully
cleansed, demijohns, not in earthenware jugs, and least of all in tin or other metallic cans.
In both of the latter class of vessels the water is almost sure to be so contaminated before
arrival, as to render the samples useless. Demijohns, and bottles as well, shQuldbe rinsed
with sand or fine gravel (not with bird-shot) until it is absolutely certain that nothing
adheres to the inside, and until all odor of previous contents (vinegar, wine, molasses,
whisky, etc.) has been removed. The corks used for closing should also be new, or, if used
before, should be boiled with water until fully cleansed of all odors or adherent deposits.

3. The water should in all cases be taken directly from the well or spring when bottled.
If gas escapes with the water, a sample of the gas should be collected in a bottle first filled
with the water and then inverted in the spring basin so as to allow the gas to bubble into
and fill the bottle ; which should then be immediately corked underwater, the cork promptly
dried and then (after cutting down to the level of the bottle neck) carefully covered with
sealing-wax, or beeswax, if the former be not available.

4. All samples should be accompanied by full statements of the location of the source of
the water, of the depth of well, amount of water or flow of spring or stream; as far as
possible, of the nature of the rock or other material from which the water comes, and of
all other facts bearing upon its nature and possible origin. In case of warm springs the
temperature should also be given.

All such packages should be forwarded by express, charges prepaid, to University of
California, Berkelej^ care of

E. W. HILGARD,
Director of Experiment Station.

For the information of chemists, it may be appropriate to state that the
restriction of the examination of waters to such points as will suffice to
determine their practical uses, is rendered necessary by the large volume
of work called for, and for the performance of which but a small force is
available. It is only in cases of special importance that the observance of
the elaborate precautions and processes of Bunsen can come within the
limits of the Station work.

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY. 11

THE SOFTENING OF HARD WATERS FOR DOMESTIC USE.

Since waters possessing an inconvenient degree of hardness are very
common in this State, owing to the ahiiost universal prevalence of calca-
reous soils and geological deposits, it is of no little interest to have some
simple means of doing away with this property, so as to render such
waters more convenient for domestic uses. This is the more important, as
in some cases the presence of a large proportion of magnesia tends to
cause serious, even though usually only temporary, gastric disturbance with
persons unused to such waters, whereby quite frequently an unfounded
prejudice against the general health-conditions of perfectly healthful
localities is created. This subject has been heretofore discussed in Bulle-
tin No. 20 of the College of Agriculture, as well as in the report for 1884,
pages 59 and 60. Its continued importance and the frequent demand for
information in the premises justifies a more elaborate consideration in this
place.

When, as is most commonly the case, this hardness is due to the pres-
ence of large proportions of the carbonates of lime and magnesia, it can be
recognized by the extent to which the water becomes turbid, or forms
whitish scum or incrustations, when boiled.

Boiling, then, is one of the means for softening waters that are hard and
" curdle the soap" from this cause; and this fact is well known to house-
keepers, but owing to the inconvenience of the application of this remedy,
it is rarely resorted to except for drinking water. For this purpose, boiling
has the special and additional advantage of insuring the destruction of
any minute germs of disease that might contaminate the water.

To soften water for washing, a common and very good remedy is the use
of carbonate of soda (" sal soda") in sufficient quantity to bring down the
lime and magnesia, and thus insure the proper solution of the soap to
form suds. Only there is too often a mistake made in not allowing time
for the soda to bring down the lime and magnesia in a powdery form,
which requires from half an hour to an hour when the water is cold, but
occurs very quickly when the water is hot. When, as is commonly done,
the soap is put into the water while the lime is still in the gelatinous
form and diffused in the water, a certain amount of " curdling" will still
happen, and the washed clothes (especially flannels) will have that soggy
and unpleasant touch which is caused by the accumulation of the lime-
and magnesia-soaps in them.

That it is undesirable to use soda for softening water to be used for
drinking hardly needs more than mention. The natural hard waters
usually contain quite as much of saline matters as is desirable in drinking
water.

Soda, however, does not in any manner correct the sanitary condition of
a water; on the contrary, it aids in keeping vegetable and animal matters
in solution, and unless added in very large excess does not interfere with
the vitality of fungous or other germs.

By far the most convenient and effective mode of purifying larger quan-
tities of hard water for domestic use, is the introduction of a definite
amount of quicklime, proportioned to the requirements of each particular

12 REPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

water; a point that can be readily ascertained by any one having an ordi-
nary capacity for observation.

The principle upon which this apparently paradoxical process is based
is this: The lime and magnesia in most hard waters are contained in the
form of carbonates, dissolved in the water by the aid of free carbonic acid.
Whatever drives off or takes possession of this free acid will bring down
the earthy substances in an insoluble form, and thereon depends the effi-
cacy of boiling as well as of the addition of "washing soda" ("cooking
soda" or bi-carbonate will not produce the effect) . Now, lime in the caustic
condition (as lime water, or " milk-of-lime,", freshly prepared) will most
effectually take possession of any free carbonic acid, and will form with it
the same insoluble compound that, when hard water is boiled, settles to the
bottom or incrusts the boiler. Hence, when an amount of clear lime water,
just sufficient to absorb all the carbonic acid in a water, is added to it,
both the lime added, and the lime and magnesia originally contained, are
brought down in the insoluble form, and the mineral contents of the water
are diminished very materially, sometimes to less than one half of the
original amount. With the sediments thus brought down there also usually
comes a large proportion of the vegetable or animal matters contained in
the water; so that instead of perhaps becoming putrid in a tank serving
for domestic supply, water so treated will remain clear and odorless for a
long time, if protected from re-contamination by insects, falling leaves, dust,
etc.

The only practical difficulty in carrying out this purification is the ascer-
tainment of the proper proportion of lime or lime water to be used, so that
the water shall neither retain too much of its original hardness nor acquire
an unpleasant taste and astringent action from an excess of lime.

This can, however, be done quite readily by a few tests with different
proportions of lime water, and the very simple trial as to which will pro-
duce the least " curdling " of soap when ready-made soapsuds are added
in small proportion. Whatever proportion of lime water or lime satisfies
this easily ascertained condition, is the best for all purposes.

I have found by numerous experiments that for the waters of the wells,
springs, and smaller streams, as well as the catchment reservoirs of the
middle coast ranges and their valleys, the best effect is usually produced
by the addition of from one tenth to one twentieth of clear lime water.

As one part by weight of pure, unslaked lime requires seven hundred
parts of water for its solution, a simple calculation shows that the above
proportion corresponds to from five to eight grains of lime per gallon, or
about three quarters to one pound per thousand gallons.

In the practical working of this process, it is best to have, for small
tanks up to one or two hundred gallons, a supply barrel in which clear
lime water of full strength can always be kept on hand ready for use. A
few pounds of lime, slaked into a creamy mass, may be put in the barrel, the
sediment being stirred up from time to time as the clear water standing
over it is replaced. Of course, in order to preserve the proper proportion,
once determined, only clear water must be used, otherwise more lime than
is called for, will be introduced into the water. The lime-water barrel
should be kept closely covered.

For larger tanks it will be more convenient either to take a weighed
amount of un slacked lime for each one thousand gallons, slack it into
" milk-of-lime " and stir it in, or else to prepare a large quantity of " milk-
of-lime " which, when thoroughly stirred, will for each measure (bucketful)
contain a known amount of lime. This would be the best way to handle
cases like one reported in the present report (see p. 16), in which the feed-

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY. 13

ing water of boilers requires to be corrected. It should, in this connection,
be understood that the lime-treatment is very efficacious against the froth-
ing produced in boilers by waters containing a large amount of vegetable
matter, as is commonly the case in that from ponds or other catchment
reservoirs.

The sediment that accumulates in tanks used for this treatment is
usually of a sandy nature, and not readily stirred up; it therefore causes
little inconvenience, and can be removed at leisure, from time to time, as
it becomes too large.

It is true that, like some other household measures conducive to sanita-
tion and comfort, the maintenance of this system requires some regular
personal interest and attendance on the part of some member of the
family. If carelessly handled, there may be unaccountable variations in
the gastric conditions of the family, from one extreme to the other, and
the soap may curdle from the water's natural hardness one week, and from
excess of lime the next. But there is no excuse for such occurrences,
except as the result of carelessness or negligence, and the advantage
gained, whether as to health or comfort, amply repays the trouble when
these hard waters require to be used.

ANALYSES OF WATERS.

A. Common Well Waters.

Well water, sent by Mr. L. Zierngibl, St. Helena. " The well is on a hill
near St. Helena; dug in August, 1887, to a depth of sixty-two feet. At a
depth of thirty-seven feet water came in slowly from the sides, and to secure
a good quantity of water the well was dug twenty-five feet further. Until
about two weeks ago the water was crystal clear; since then it looks bluish,
and when boiled deposits a brown sediment."

The analysis gave:

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total residue upon evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and combined water.
Silica .'

13.27
1.67
9.07
2.63
7.00

2.272
.262

1.552
.452

1.200

The soluble part consists in the main of chloride of sodium, or common
salt, with some carbonate of soda and small amounts of lime and potash.

The insoluble part consists mainly of silica, with small amounts of the
carbonate and sulphate of lime, and a little magnesia.

The residue from evaporation blackens considerably when heated, from
the presence of vegetable matter, and the water on boiling forms a deposit,
consisting mainly of silica.

This water is quite peculiar in that its chief mineral ingredient is silica,
while the usually predominant ingredients — compounds of sodium, calcium,
and magnesium — are present in very small amounts only. It is, of course,
quite unobjectionable for domestic and other uses.

Well ivater, from a well on one of the Mission Hills; sent by Mr. B. Stro-
zynski, San Francisco. The well is three hundred feet above sea-level.

14

EEPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

was formerly seventy-seven feet deep and has since been sunk to the depth
of eighty-five feet, when a spring was struck which gives forth water such
as the sample analyzed. The water from the original well was very hard
and not good for family use. The result of the analysis is as follows:

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total residue by evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation (common salt with a little chlo-
ride of magnesium and carbonate of sodium)

Insoluble after evaporation (gypsum)

Insoluble after evaporation (carbonate of calcium with some car-
bonate of magnesium)

Insoluble in acid (silica)

216.88

142.82
51.07

21.61
1.38

37.132

24.452
8.744

3.700
.236

The amount of organic matter present is very slight. Both the water
itself and the soluble portion shows considerable alkalinity to test paper,
indicating the presence of soda carbonate.

It will be seen that the greater part of the mineral contents of this water
consists of common salt, to such extent as to render it unfit for domestic
uses. In its general character the mineral residue resembles greatly that
from the evaporation of sea water, and for medicinal uses its properties
would be very nearly the same.

Tank water (No. 1); sent by Dr. M. C. O'Toole, North Berkeley. The
Avaterwas clear, but had a flat taste and a weakly alkaline reaction. It
was suspected of having caused illness.

Parts in
10,000.

Grains per
Gallon.

Solid residue on evaporation

Soluble in water after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and water

4.928
1.512
1.996
1.420

28.8

8.8

11.7

Upon ignition the residue blackened strongly. The soluble part had a
faintly alkaline reaction, and contained chiefly common salt with some
Glauber's salt; while the insoluble part consisted of gypsum and carbo-
nates of lime and magnesia, with a small proportion of silica. A strong
reaction was obtained in a test for free ammonia, and similarly for com-
bined ammonia. The water had evidently received sewage contamination
in some way, and was unfit for domestic use.

Running creeh water (No. 2) ; sent by Dr. M. C. O'Toole, North Berkeley.
The sample received was turbid from clay. After filtration the analysis
gave:

Parts in
10,000.

Grains per
Gallon.

Total residue on evaporation
Organic matter and loss

3.75
1.20

21.8
7.0

Upon ignition the residue became intensely black. The test for chlorine
showed only a moderate amount present; similarly the reaction with lime

WATEES AND WATER SUPPLY.

15

water produced only a moderate pulverulent precipitate. There was very-
little carbonate in the residue. A water of doubtful quality for domestic
purposes.

Well water (No. 3) ; sent by the same.
less, and clear.

The water was tasteless, odor-

Grains per

Gallon.

Parts in

10,000.

Total residue by evaporation -.

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and chemically combined water
Silica -

52.4
21.5
16.2
15.2
1.2

8.97
3.60
2.77
2.60
.21

The residue became intensely black upon ignition. The soluble part
consisted mainly of common salt with small amounts of potash and mag-
nesia salts. The part insoluble in water consisted of carbonates of lime
and magnesia with gypsum, and traces of alumina and iron.

The excessive amount of saline and organic matter in this water, as well
as the predominance of common salt, indicate outside contamination which
renders it unfit for domestic use.

Well and spring waters, from the neighborhood of Saratoga, Santa Clara
County; sent by Mr. G. E. Pinder. Of three samples sent, No. 1 is from
a well thirty feet deep, in which a light will not burn; No. 2 is from a
spring in the creek; No. 3, from a galvanized iron pipe, running as a siphon
six hundred feet to a well thirty feet deep.

1.

2.

3.

Total solid residue by evaporation (grainsper gallon).
Again soluble, after evaporation (grains per gallon)..

Insoluble, after evaporation (grains per gallon)

Organic matter and combined water (grains per gal-
lon)

21.89

2.83

13.06

6.00

23.36

4.41

12.89

6.05

21.32

5.83
9.81

6.66

All these waters are alike in qualitative composition. The soluble part
consists largely of carbonate of soda, with smaller amounts of the sulphate
and chloride of sodium and some potassium.

The insoluble part, which in all greatly exceeds the soluble, consists
chiefly of carbonate of lime, with a little gypsum, carbonate of magnesia,
and considerable silica.

These are simply hard waters, like most of those of the Santa Cruz
Mountains; they can readily be softened by boiling or by the addition of
about one tenth of clear lime water, or (for washing) by the use of a
little sal soda or borax. No. 3 blackens considerably on ignition, from
the presence of vegetable matter, and should be purified by means of lime
water for domestic use. (See, on this subject, the directions given under
the preceding head.)

16

KEPOKTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

Well water, from a well near Saratoga; sent by Mr. George E. Hyde,
Saratoga, Santa Clara County. The water is slightly alkaline, and clear.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in

10,000.

Total residue by evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and combined water
Silica .- - -

14.50
4.88
6.63
2.99
2.40

2.484
.836

1.136
.512
.412

The soluble part consists chiefly of sodium chloride, or common salt,
with a very little sulphate, and a small proportion of potash salts.

The insoluble part contains the carbonates of lime and magnesia, in
about equal proportions, and fully one third of the whole is silica. Only
a very small amount of organic matter is present.

This is a well water of excellent composition, softer than most others of
the region, and suitable for every domestic use.

Well and spring waters, from the property of the Paul 0. Burns Wine
Company, San Jose. These waters were sent for examination on account
of vexatious difficulties encountered in their use for steam and other pur-
poses.

Sample No. 1 was taken from the supply tank (filled with well water),
which had been lately cleaned but not whitewashed ; it is a new tank and
before had not been cleaned for four months; the water had acquired a
very offensive odor. The water sample sent gave off a strong odor of sul-
phuretted hydrogen; it was quite alkaline to test paper. The water becomes
turbid on opening the bottle and gradually loses its odor.

Grains per
Gallons.

Total residue by evaporation

Again soluble in water after evaporation

Insoluble in water after evaporation

Combined water and organic matter

22.46
4.82

10.66
6.98

The residue blackened strongly on ignition and burned white with some
difficulty. The water-soluble part had an alkaline reaction, and contained
common salt, Glauber's salt, and some carbonate of soda and sulphate of
potassium. The part insoluble in water was composed of the carbonates
of calcium and magnesium with a small amount of gypsum and very little
silica. The test for ammonia gave a decided indication of its presence.

This water is not materially different from the usual run of natural
waters in the Santa Clara Valley and Santa Cruz range, except in the very
large amount of organic matter, and especially the presence of ammonia,
which indicate contamination of some kind.

Boiler water (No. 2) ; sent by the above. " Water as it comes from steam
boiler, at blowing off, cleaned internally, and still it throws this heavy
sediment, causing the water to foam and become muddy, stuffing the gauge
glass and making much trouble." The water gives a decided alkaline
reaction to test paper.

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY,

17

Grains pel-
Gallon.

Total solid contents by evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and water

50.75

41.44

2.80

6.51

The residue blackens very strongly upon ignition and burns white with
great difficulty. The soluble part contained in the main chloride of sodium
with smaller amounts of sulphate of potassium, and gypsum; it was quite
strongly alkaline. The insoluble part was formed of carbonate of magne-
sium and a little gypsum and silica. The test for ammonia gave a strong
reaction.

It appears from the above data that in using it for making steam the
tank water had been boiled down to somewhat over one third of its bulk,
and the bulk of the earthy matters had come down in the insoluble form
of "slush"; while the organic matter remained dissolved in the alkaline
water, causing it to froth.

Spring water (No. 3) ; sent by the same, with the view of possibly substi-
tuting it for the well water heretofore used. The water was clear and
colorless; emitted a faint odor of sulphuretted hydrogen; its reaction was
quite alkaline.

Grains per
Gallon.

Total solid contents by evaporation
Soluble in water after evaporation. -
Insoluble in water after evaporation
Organic matter and water

43.89

15.33

20.47

8.09

The residue becomes quite black on ignition, and burns with difficulty.
The soluble part is quite alkaline, and contains chloride of sodium, Glau-
ber's salt, and traces of sulphates of potassium and magnesium. The
insoluble part is composed of gypsum, carbonates of magnesia and lime,
and silica. The reaction for ammonia is extremely faint.

It appears from the above analysis that this spring water would doubt-
less make matters worse if used in the steam boiler. It would yield just
double the amount of " slush," and its saline contents being three times
greater, while the organic matters are still somewhat excessive, the frothing
would probably be quite as inconvenient.

The cause of the trouble with the boiler is amply apparent from the
statement of No. 2, the tank water, as compared with the boiler water,
which is understood to be originally the same. It appears that for every
gallon of evaporated, over ten and one half grains of sediment are deposited
in the boiler.

That sediment consists in the main of carbonates of lime and magnesia,
while the soluble part is mainly common salt and Glauber's salt, or sul-
phate and chloride of sodium, with some carbonate of soda. At the same
time the water contains a remarkably large amount of organic impuri-
ties, creating the presumption of sewage contamination, which is further
strengthened by the fact that both Nos. 1 and 2 contain ammonia in no
inconsiderable proportion. The organic matters with the sulphates present,
passing into putrid fermentation, ci'eate the putrescent odor.
2^

18

REPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

The difficulty with the boiler might doubtless be remedied, and the
water rendered sufficiently pure for most uses, by purification with lime
water according to the process described above; i. e., by the addition of
about I pound of unsl-aked lime, first slaked into a thin slush, stirred
into the tank for every one thousand gallons of water. This will throw
down nearly all the earthy matters, and most of the organic, and render
the water applicable to nearly all ordinary domestic purposes.

Well water; sent by Thomas E. Hughes, of Fresno. The water was
clear, odorless, tasteless, with a slightly alkaline reaction.

Parts in
10,000.

Grains per
Gallon.

Total residue by evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble in water after evaporation

Water and organic matter

Silica -

2.000
.620

1.113
.260
.489

11.6
3.6
6.5
1.5

2.8

Upon ignition the residue darkens slightly. The soluble part is strongly
alkaline, and consists of Glauber's salts, with small amounts of common
salt, carbonate of soda, and gypsum. The insoluble part is composed of
carbonate of lime, silica, and a small amount of carbonate of magnesia.

This is a very good water for all domestic uses as well as for irrigation,
having rather an unusually low amount of mineral contents of unobjection-
able character.

Well water, from near (one mile from) Polonio Pass, T. 26, R. 17 E., Sec.
15; on road from Bakersfield to San Luis Obispo, in the northwest corner
of Kern County; sent by John R. Carr. This well is fifty-six feet deep,
and yields fifty to sixty gallons of water daily. In boring it there were
found: first, fifteen feet of soil and subsoil; then a gray slate, which
crumbles on exposure to air. The water comes from the (clay) slate,
smells strongly of sulphuretted hydrogen, and is strongly alkaline to test
paper. The analysis gave:

Parts in

10,000.

Residue upon evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and combined water

25.180

20.240

3.360

1.580

The soluble part is strongly alkaline to test paper, and consists largely
of carbonate of soda, with sulphate (Glauber's salt), and chloride of sodium
(common salt), and small amounts of potash, lime, and magnesia.

The insoluble part consists mainly of the carbonate and sulphate of lime
(gypsum), with some carbonate of magnesia and silica.

This water is far too strong in mineral ingredients for any domestic use;
as a mineral water it would be a saline purgative of moderate strength.

Water from a dug well, near Alpine Station, Los Angeles County; sent
by H. Slotterbeck, of Los Angeles. The wells from which this water was
obtained are on Sections 34 and 35, T. 6 N., R. 12 W., about two miles
from the above station and immediately adjoining the foothills of the

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY.

19

northern slope of the mountains bordering the Mojave desert. From the
description given the formation of the region is somewhat complex, con-
sisting of both granite with more or less quartz, and sandstone with sub-
ordinate beds of calcareous and gypseous clay and marl. In the wells a
sandstone ledge was encountered at from forty to fifty-eight feet, and beneath
the same a small quantity of water seeped in, of which the above is a
sample. It is also stated that on an adjoining section, higher up, a plenti-
ful supply of good water was obtained at fifty feet, while elsewhere in the
region no water is found at a less depth than two hundred feet.

The water was quite clear, faintly alkaline to test paper, had a saline,
flattish taste.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total residue by evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and combined water

406.07

269.80

98.60

37.60

69.520

46.200

16.880

6.440

The soluble part consists mainly of Glauber's and common salt, or sul-
phate and chloride of sodium, considerable Epsom salt (sulphate of mag-
nesia) and small amounts of gypsum and sulphate of potassium.

The insoluble part consists chiefly of gypsum with some carbonate of
magnesia.

This is a strong saline purgative water, fit only for careful medicinal
use.

Well water, from Fulton Wells, near Los Angeles City; sent by W. F.
Nimmocks. Water clear, with strong odor and taste of sulphuretted
hydrogen. The analysis gave:

Grains per
Gallon.

Total residue by evaporation

Soluble in water after evaporation . .
Insoluble in water after evaporation

Organic matter and water -

Silica

28.0

18.5

6.5

4.0

.1

The residue became intensely black upon ignition. The soluble part
consisted chiefly of chloride of sodium (common salt), with very small
amounts of chloride of potassium and gypsum. The insoluble part con-
sisted of the carbonates of calcium and magnesium, with a trace of silica.

A sulphur water of good strength and slightly saline character. From
some cause the sample contained a very large proportion of vegetable mat-
ter, causing the blackening of the residue when heated and modifying the
taste as well. Whether this matter was accidental or is derived from the
rock through which the water passes, could not be determined.

20

REPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

Water frovi a driven well at Riverside ; sent by Henry Jarecki. The water
was clear, odorless, tasteless, and had a faintly alkaline reaction.

Grains per
Gallon.

Solid contents upon evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Silica

Combined water and organic matter

34.90

15.04

12.68

2.33

7.13

The residue did not blacken on ignition, showing that very little organic
matter was present.

The soluble part contained in the main common salt with very small
amounts of gypsum and chloride of potassium; while the insoluble portion
consisted chiefly of carbonate of lime, with smaller amounts of gypsum,
carbonate of magnesia, and silica. The soluble portion had a faintly alka-
line reaction, doubtless due to the presence of a trace of carbonate of soda.

Notwithstanding its relatively large proportion of mineral salts (which
render the raw water very hard), it is unobjectionable for domestic use on
account of their innocuous character. Nearly half of the entire amount is
carbonate of lime, which may be thrown down by boiling or in other ways
mentioned above, leaving the water with but fifteen grains per gallon, of
common salt.

Well water, from San Bernardino; sent by Mrs. C. M. Davis, San Bernar-
dino. Water clear, no special taste.

Grains per
Gallon.

Total solid residue upon evaporation

Soluble after evaporation .-.

Insoluble after evaporation

Chemically combined water and little organic matter

13.6
3.5
7.0
3.1

The soluble part consists of chlorides of the alkalies with very small
amounts of sulphates.

The insoluble part consists mainly of gypsum, very little carbonate of
lime and magnesia being present.

This water is fully available for all domestic uses, the mineral matter
present being quite moderate in amount. It can be softened by the use of
a little sal soda, or lime water.

Well waters, from two wells on Alturas Rancho, near San Luis Rey, San
Diego County; sent by Cave J. Couts, Esq., who makes the following
statement in regard to it: " Of the two wells, one is over four hundred feet
above the sea level, fifty feet deep; the other, three hundred and fifty feet
above sea level, ninety-eight feet deep. The water in the upper well, which
is on a sidehill in adobe formation, is so thoroughly impregnated with
mineral of some kind that I have feared using it for stock or irrigation.
The lower well is six hundred feet from the upper one; after the first six
feet, it is all through decomposed granite. Its water also has some mineral,
and I use it for stock, but have not dared to use it for irrigation until I could
find out if its properties were not injurious to trees or vines. Nearly all the
water in this neighborhood has the same taste as that of the lower well."

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY.

21

The water from the upper well is clear, and has a distinct saline taste.

That of the lower well is also clear; on opening the bottle, a strong odor
of sulphuretted hydrogen was noted, but not enough to be quantitatively
determined.

The analyses resulted as follows:

Upper Well.

LowEB Well.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in

10,000.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total solid residue by evaporation

Soluble part after evaporation

500.00

368.86

19.57

111.57

85.60

63.15

3.35

19.10

84.11

52.69

8.64

22.78

14.40
9.02

Insoluble part after evaporation _.

Chemically combined water and organic
matter

1.48
3.90

In the water of the upper well, the soluble part consists in the main of
common salt, with considerable quantities of chlorides of calcium and
magnesium, and a small amount of gypsum. The insoluble part con-
sists chiefly of silica with a little gypsum.

In the water of the lower well, the ingredients were nearly the same as
above, with the addition of some carbonates both of the alkalies, and of
lime and magnesia.

As to the water of the upper well, it is too strongly mineral, and medi-
cinally too energetic a purgative to be used for any domestic or agricult-
ural purpose whatsoever. Its ingredients are doubtless derived from the
rock from which the adobe soil was formed. The water of the lower well
is in substance the same, but less strongly tainted with salts, in conse-
quence of an accession from the purer granite drainage, which has imparted
to it some of its ingredients. The water is still, however, (quite five times)
too strongly mineral for continued domestic use, and few plants would long
resist its use in irrigation.

It is to be hoped that good water may be found deeper within the granite,
from which, as a rule, the purest waters flow.

SPRING WATERS.

Spring water, from a farm near Paradise, Butte County; sent by Mr.
Irving A. Coonradt, Paradise, Butte County. The water is very faintly
alkaline, and contains:

Gains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total residue by evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and combined water

5.35

.85

3.41

1.09

.916
.144

.584
.188

The soluble part consists mainly of Glauber's salt or sulphate of soda,
with small amounts of common salt and of magnesium chloride or bittern.

The insoluble part consists in the main of carbonate of lime, with a
little magnesia and silica, and a not inconsiderable amount of iron oxide.

When fresh the water is clear, but on exposure to air becomes turbid
and deposits .64 grains per gallon of ferric hvdrate or iron rust, from which
its peculiar taste is derived.

22

REPOETS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

Apart from this, the water is remarkably free from mineral ingredients,
and resembles a river water more than that of a spring. It can therefore
hardly count as a mineral water. It may be termed a very weak chaly-
beate.

Spring ivater, from the " Far Niente" farm ; sent by Mr. John Benson,
Oakville, Napa County. The water is quite alkaline and contains:

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in

10.000.

Total residue after evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and combined water

23.22

12.59

9.02

1.61

3.976

2.156

1.544

.276

The soluble part is strongly alkaline to test paper and contains, besides
carbonate of soda, chiefly the sulphate (Glauber's salt) and some chloride
or common salt.

The insoluble part (forming less than three sevenths of the total min-
eral matter) consists mainly of carbonate of lime, with a small amount of
magnesia.

The residue blackens when heated, showing the presence of some organic
matter; but no ammonia was detected, showing the water to be free from
sewage contamination, despite a rather large proportion of common salt.
This water, though very hard, is fally available for domestic use, and may
be softened as described above.

Spring water, from the Blue Mountains near Vacaville; sent by Mr. J.
R. Collins, Vacaville. The water was clear but had a strong taste and odor
of sulphuretted hydrogen; became turbid on standing; slight alkaline
reaction. Lime water produced a slight turbidity.

The water contained:

Total residue upon evaporation

Soluble in water after evaporation..
Insoluble in water after evaporation
Combined water

Grains per
Gallon.

21.02
4.56

12.45
4.01

The soluble part was quite alkaline, and contained carbonate and sul-
phate of sodium, with a smaller amount of common salt, sulphate of
potassium, and gypsum. The insoluble part was composed mainly of car-
bonate of calcium, with small amounts of carbonate of magnesium and
silica.

This water is too weak to be considered a mineral one, its contents scarcely
exceeding those of ordinary drinking waters in the State. Its sulphurous
odor, from a small proportion of sulphuretted hydrogen, alone imparts to
it a somewhat unusual character. It is very hard.

Spring ivater, from Oakland Ranch, Applegate, Placer County; sent by
Rev. A. T. Perkins, of Alameda. The water as received contained consider-
able brownish flocculent matter, which was removed before evaporation.
The filtered water was clear and colorless, but had a faint styptic taste.

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY.

23

The analysis gave:

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in

:o,ooo.

Total solid residue by evaporation. -.

Soluble part after evaporation --

Insoluble part after evaporation,

Cheraically combined water and small amount organic matter..

12.6
2.8
7.5
2.3

2.160
.490

1.280
.390

The soluble part consists of chiefly chlorides and bicarbonates of the
alkalies, with a trace of sulphates.

The insoluble part consists of chiefly carbonate of lime, with a small
amount of carbonates of magnesia and iron. The amount of carbonate of
iron is in the insoluble part about 1.5 grains per gallon; the suspended
matter, consisting chiefly of ferric hydrate, amounts to about 6.5 grains
per gallon. The total amount of carbonate of iron would, therefore, in the
fresh water, amount to about eight grains per gallon, making the original
total of solid contents about nineteen grains. The water thus appears as
a chalybeate of fair strength, but without other active ingredients of any
importance.

Spring water, from a spring twelve miles south of Livermore, in the mount-
ains, about one thousand eight hundred feet above sea level ; sent by W.
M. Mendenhall, Livermore. The water was clear, tasteless, and odorless,
with a slightly alkaline reaction.

Grains per
Gallon.

Total residue by evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation . ...

Insoluble after evaporation

Combined water and organic matter

32.76
11.57
15.27
. 5.92

The soluble part is quite alkaline, and is composed of chloride of sodium,
Glauber's salt, some carbonate of sodium, and sulphate of potassium.

The insoluble part consists of the carbonates of calcium and magnesium
and gypsum.

The mineral contents of this water are rather high for daily use, but
most persons could probably become accustomed to its use. In medicinal
character it is slightly purgative, |

Spring water from a tunnel, twenty to thirty feet deep, near Los Gatos,
Santa Clara County; sent by F. H. McCullagh. Only a very small supply
of this water was obtained, and hence it was abandoned as a source of
supply for domestic use, but from the strong sulphurous odor in the tun-
nel it was thought the waters might possess medicinal value. It is clear,
slightly alkaline to test paper, bui when received had no sulphurous odor.

Grains per
Gallon.

Pai-ts in
10,000..

Total residue by evaporation

Soluble in water after evaporation . .
Insoluble in water after evaporation
Silica -_-

17.13
1.83

15.30
2.41

2.932-
.313

2.619 ■
.412

24

REPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

The residue upon ignition blackens slightly along the upper edge. The
soluble part is slightly alkaline, due to a small amount of carbonate of
sodium, besides which it chiejfly contains sodium chloride and sulphate.
The insoluble part consists of carbonates of magnesium and calcium, and
some silica.

The mineral matter in this water is not higher in amount than is usual
in the waters of the region, but it is somewhat peculiar in that quite seven
eighths of the total amount present is of an earthy nature, and that chiefly
carbonate of magnesia. The saline ingredients are exceptionally low. As
it stands, the water would probably exert a slightly laxative effect upon
persons of delicate digestion, and might be useful in that direction.

Spring water, from Skyland, five miles south of Wright's Station, Santa
Cruz Mountains; sent by Miss Augusta C. H. Weber. The water has a
very faintly acid reaction, and contains some free carbonic acid gas.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in

10,000.

On evaporation it leaves a total residue of

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and combined water

The silica (insoluble in acid)-

5.93
1.50
3.17
1.26
2.66

1.016
.256
.542
.216
.456

The residue does not blacken much on ignition. The soluble part has a
faintly alkaline reaction, and contains chiefly common salt, with small
amounts of gypsum, sulphate of potassium, and a trace of magnesia.

The insoluble part, constituting nearly two thirds of the total mineral
matter, consists chiefly of silica, with small amounts of gypsum and the
carbonates of lime and magnesia.

This is a remarkably pure water, resembling more a river water (e. g.,
that of Kings River) than that of a spring, especially in a region where
strongly calcareous waters prevail so generally. Few natural waters with
so little mineral matter have been found in this State,

Spring water, from a spring near Hollister; sent by Mr. James McMahon
of San Jose. The water is clear, colorless, odorless; the residue left after
evaporation does not blacken upon ignition.

Grains per
Gallon.

Total residue by evaporation -..
Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Combined water ,.

Silica -

36.0

13.1

16.3

6.6

2.3

The soluble part was faintly alk aline ,*and contained chiefly common salt
with some gypsum and Glauber's salt, while the insoluble part consisted
of the carbonates of calcium, and magnesium, and silica.

The water of this spring is rather strong in mineral ingredients for many
domestic uses, being exceedingly hard; but on boiling, or treatment with
lime, comes within the limits of ordinary potable waters. It would prob-
ably exert a somewhat purgative effect upon many persons, and might

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY.

25

serve as a gentle aperient, but others may become used to it and drink it
without special effects.

Spring water, from near Bryson, Monterey County; sent by D. Sturgis,
of that place. " It discharges from sandrock at the rate of eight gallons
per hour." The water is clear and odorless, but tastes somewhat flattish.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total solid residue by evaporation

Soluble part after evaporation

Insoluble part after evaporation.

Chemically combined water and small amount of organic matter

108.87

91.24

8.93

8.70

18.640

15.620

1.530

1.490

The soluble part consists chiefly of Glauber's salt with chlorides and
bicarbonates of the alkalies, and a small amount of calcium sulphate.

The insoluble part consists of carbonates of lime and magnesia, with a
small quantity of gypsum.

This water is far too heavily charged with saline purgative ingredients
to serve for domestic use. For use as a mineral water, as a purgative, it
shares the qualities of too many waters in this State to promise commer-
cial success.

Spring water, from a spring five miles southeast of Coulterville ; sent by
Phil. Hope, Coulterville, Mariposa County. The spring flows at a rate of
three gallons per minute, is not affected by the seasons, and issues from
very hard granite. The water has a taste like swamp water ; is very hard
and alkaline to test paper.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total solid residue by evaporation..

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and combined water

24.7
4.4

16.9
3.4

4.230

.760

2.890

.580

The soluble part, forming only one fifth of the mineral matter, consists
of the sulphate and chloride of sodium, with a not inconsiderable admix-
ture of potassium salts.

The insoluble part mainly of carbonate of lime, with some carbonate of
magnesia, gypsum, and a considerable amount of silica.

This is simply an exceedingly hard, calcareous water, which by simple
boiling becomes a rather unusually pure spring water, suitable for all house-
hold purposes. It can also, of course, be softened by the addition of lime
water to the extent of about one tenth.

Spring and seepage waters, flowing from different sides of a canon, near
Camulos, Ventura County; sent by David C. Cook, Esq.

No. 1. Strongly alkaline to test paper; of a light amber color, showing
a large amount of dissolved organic matter. Taste, flattish and saline.

No. 2. Also quite alkaline to test paper, but clear and colorless.

The composition was as follows:

26

REPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

No. 1.

No. 2.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total solid residue by evaporation

Soluble part after evaporation .

325.8

189.7

f (4.4)

t 85.7

50.2

55.7
32.5
(.7)
14.7

8.6

369.9
243.4
(3.1)

76.7

49.8

63.3
417

Insoluble part (carbonate of soda)

Chemicallj' combined water, and little
organic matter

(.5)
13.1

85

In qualitative composition the two waters are also very nearly alike.
The soluble part consists in the main of sulphate of soda, or Glauber's
salt, with some carbonate and chloride of sodium (common salt), and a
little sulphate of potash; the common salt being somewhat more abundant
in No. 2 than in the other.

The insoluble part consists of a mixture of gypsum with some carbonate
of lime and magnesia, and a little silica.

Both these waters are altogether too strongly mineral to be used other-
wise than as a purgative medicine, mitigated somewhat for the animal
system by the carbonate of soda, but rendered more injurious to soil and
vegetation by that very fact. They presumably represent the percolates of
highly alkaline soils existing at the heads of the canons.

Spring water, from a spring in the foothills of the Coast Range, in west-
ern Tulare County; said to have produced disease in cattle drinking it;
sent by L. L. Robinson, San Francisco. The water is clear, odorless, but
with a flat, brackish taste ; it has a strong alkaline reaction. Considerable
residue had settled in the bottle.

Total residue by evaporation

Again soluble in water after evaporation

Insoluble in water after evaporation

Silica -- -- .-

Organic matter and combined water

Grains per
Gallon.

208.4
132.2

51.1
9.6

25.1

The residue blackens somewhat upon ignition. The soluble part was
weakly alkaline, and contained chiefly common and Glauber's salts, while
the insoluble part was composed mainly of gypsum, with a little carbonate
of magnesium and some silica.

This water is by far too strongly mineral to be safely used by either man
or beast, being a saline purgative of considerable strength, and unfit for
any but careful medicinal use.

The frequent occurrence of saline crusts and efflorescences in the foot-
hills of the Coast Range, from Fresno to Kern County, suggests that care
should be exercised in the use of spring waters occurring in this region, for
either man or beast.

MINERAL WATERS.

Mineral water ^ from Mt. Lassen Springs, in the northwest corner of Plumas
County; sent by Mr. E. R. Drake, Prattville, Plumas County.

The water is clear, and when fresh quite acid to test paper from free
carbonic acid; on boiling the reaction changes to alkaline and the water

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY.

27

becomes turbid. The residue upon ignition did not blacken much. Its
contents were:

Parts in
10,000.

Grains per
Gallon.

Total residue by evaporation

Soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and combined water

8.310
1.790
4.840
1.680

48.54

10.46

28.27

9.81

The soluble part was quite strongly alkaline and contained chiefly car-
bonate of sodium, with a small amount of carbonate of potassium and
traces of chloride of sodium and gypsum. The insoluble residue contained
the carbonates of calcium and magnesium in large quantities, with quite
an amount of ferric hydrate and silica, beside a small amount of gypsum.

An alkaline water of moderate strength, with enough of iron (carbonate)
to impart to it tonic properties.

^^ Hot Springs'^ water, from near the residence of Captain H. E. Boyes,
Sonoma. This water has a strong and rather unpleasant odor, partly of
svilphuretted hydrogen; it was slightly turbid when received. To test
paper it is slightly acid at first, but changes to alkaline on boiling and evap-
oration.

Parts in
10,000.

Grains per
Gallon.

Total residue by evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Silica

Combined water and organic matter

9.540
6.445
1.935
1.114
1.160

65.72

37.65

11.30

6.51

6.77

The soluble part has an alkaline reaction, and consists of chloride of
sodium with traces of carbonate and Glauber's salts. The insoluble part
consists of carbonates of calcium and magnesium, with some ferric hydrate
and considerable silica. A saline water of moderate strength and slightly
tonic (chalybeate) properties.

Water from Samuel's Napa Soda Springs, Napa County. The analysis
of this water was made for the proprietor by Mr. A. H. Weber, with the
following result. The water was clear, strongly effervescent, and of pleasant
taste:

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts iu
10,000.

Total solid residue after evaporation.

Soluble part after evaporation.

Insoluble part after evaporation...

Chemically combined water, carbonic acid, and organic matter

The soluble part consists of: Bicarbonate of soda

Sulphate of soda

Common salt

Chloride of magnesium

Potash salts.

The insoluble part consists of : Carbonate of lime

Carbonate of magnesia

Carbonate of iron.

Silica.-.

30.69

52.49

4.90

32.99

.25

16.87

2.38

trace.

17.23

7.82

.78

4.86

15.080
5.254
8.986

.840
5.648

.044
2.888

.408
traces.
2.950
1.339

.134

.832

28 REPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

Free carbonic acid gas, 335 cubic inches per gallon.

Mineral water; sent by Mr. Geo. W. Gilmore, Milton, Calaveras County.
The water is slightly turbid and slightly alkaline, but becomes very
strongly alkaline when boiled.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total residue by evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Organic matter and combined water
Alumina, silica and ferric oxide

12.6
3.0
7.4
2.2
4.9

2.172
.516

1.272
.384
.839

The soluble part contains a large proportion of carbonate of soda, with
some sulphate and chloride, or Glauber's and common salt.

The insoluble part consists in the main of silica, alumina (phosphate?),
and ferric oxide, with smaller amounts of the carbonates of lime and mag-
nesia. The amount of water sent was too small to serve for a full deter-
mination in so weak a water; were it stronger it would serve an excellent
purpose as an alkaline chalybeate mineral water.

Water from Ojai Hot Springs, near Nordhoff, Ventura County; sent by
A. W. Blumberg, the proprietor.

This water is clear, and when fresh, smells strongly of sulphuretted
hydrogen, which imparts to it an acid reaction on test paper. As received,
the water contained about ten cubic inches per gallon of sulphydric gas.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total solid residue bj"- evaporation -.

Soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation

Chemically combined water and little organic matter

32.59

22.20

4.55

5.84

5.580

3.800

.780

1.000

The soluble part consists chiefly of chloride of sodium or common salt,
with small amounts of the carbonate of the same, and of the sulphates of
sodium and potassium.

The insoluble part consists of the sulphate and carbonate of lime, with
some carbonate of magnesia and a very small amount of the phosphates
of the same.

This water is of very moderate mineral strength, and derives its chief
value from its sulphuretted gas, as a "white sulphur-' water.

D. Artesian Waters.

Artesian water, from Beckwith, Plumas County, Cal.; sent by Thomas
Black, Beckwith. From an artesian well, four hundred and twenty-five
feet deep; temperature of water, 89 degrees Fahrenheit. " It has been
used for irrigating a garden, and when it overflows the surface and dries
off it leaves a white substance on the surface which resembles alkali. We
have used it for cooking and drinking, and washing our butter, and for
making brine for curing our meat; but imagine that our meat does not
keep well with it. Our horses are very fond of it. The substance we send
is what adheres to the nozzle of the pipe as it flows from below through

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY.

29

the casings, and a great deal bf such sediment forms in tanks into which
it flows. There are a great many wells struck in Sierra Valley, ranging
in depth from three hundred and eighty to twelve hundred feet. Some
of them have the water as hot as 180 degrees Fahrenheit."

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total solid residue on evaporation

Soluble part after evaporation

Insoluble part after evaporation -...

Chemically combined water and small amount of organic matter

79.61

71.26

6.07

2.28

13.630

12.200

1.040

.390

The soluble part consists of a large amount of common salt, consider-
able Glauber's salt, with small quantities of carbonates of soda, sulphates
of potash, lime and magnesia. The insoluble part consists of gypsum,
carbonates of lime and magnesia, and silica.

The amount of mineral matter contained is about four times as great as
is usually considered compatible with the use of water for irrigation, unless
special precautions are observed. The main ingredient is common salt,
which is not very injurious unless accumulated in large quantities. This
accumulation can be prevented by proper draining from time to time.

Water from artesian well, at Patterson's Landing, two miles south of Alva-
rado, Alameda County; sent by Mr. William Ryan. Depth of well, three
hundred and twenty feet; water clear, and alkaline to test paper, although
soft to the taste. The examination gave:

Grains per
Gallon.

Residue urpon evaporation

Soluble in water after evaporation - .
Insoluble in water after evaporation
Organic matter and combined water

22.36

16.20

4.32

1.84

The soluble part was very strongly alkaline, and gave a heavy precipi-
tate with lime water, showing it to contain a large amount of carbonate of
soda; besides, there were present common salt, Glauber's salt, and very
small amounts of gypsum and sulphate of magnesia.

The insoluble part consisted chiefly of carbonate of calcium, with a
smaller amount of carbonate of magnesium, some silica, and very small
quantities of gypsum and ferric hydrate.

This water, in common with that of other deep wells located near the
bay shore, shows the soda carbonate as its characteristic ingredient; while
the shallower wells, as well as those lying nearer the edge of the valley,
have neutral or but very slightly alkaline waters. The mineral ingredients
are not, however, too abundant for ordinary uses, and the water is soft and
pleasant to the taste.

Water from artesian well near Borden, Fresno County; sent by A. L.
Sayre, of Borden. The well is one thousand two hundred feet in depth.
The water is clear, faintly alkaline to test paper, and has a slight brack-
ish taste. It contains:

30

EEPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts ia

10,000.

Total residue by evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation

Insoluble after evaporation ,

Organic matter and combined water

142.5

116.3

11.4

14.8

24.410

19.920

1.950

2.540

The soluble part consists mainly of the chlorides of sodium and calcium,
with a little potassium.

The insoluble part consists in the main of carbonate of lime, with a small
amount of silica.

This water is altogether too strongly impregnated with mineral salts for
domestic use, and could be used for irrigation only under exceptional con-
ditions. There is no practically feasible way of correcting it.

Artesian loater, from Carpinteria, Santa Barbara County; sent by T. W.
Ward. From a flowing well one hundred and forty-seven feet deep, in
which gravel was reached. " Several families are interested in the result,
as they are using the water, and I am laying pipes so that others can do so
if it is desirable. Others have wells here, and still others are considering
the matter of putting them down, so you see it is a matter of neighborhood
interest to find out about the healthfulness of the water," It is clear and
tasteless.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total solid residue by evaporation

Soluble part after evaporation

Insoluble part after evaporation

Chemically combined water and a little organic matter

28.0

11.8

13.7

2.5

4.80

2.01

2.35

.44

The soluble part consists of carbonates and chlorides of the alkalies,
with small quantities of sulphates of same, gypsum, and Glauber's salt.

The insoluble part consists of carbonates of lime and magnesia, with a
small amount of gypsum and silica.

This is quite a hard water, but not more so than those in common use in
the Santa Clara Valley, with which it agrees very closely in composition.
In case it should at first disagree with any one, it can be softened either
by boiling, or by the use of a little sal soda, or by mixing it with one tenth
of its bulk of clear lime water and allowing it to settle.

Water from a bored well, five hundred feet deep, half a mile east of Car-
pinteria, Santa Barbara County; sent by the owner, P. C. Higgins, who
makes the following statement regarding it:

The pipe in this well is one and seven eighths inches wide. The water,
we think, comes in about four hundred feet below the surface, from a crev-
ice in rock. The auger passed principally through soft, dry shale — so dry
that it was nearly impossible to bore without using water. Combustible
gas comes in, apparently, from a crevice below the water. By pumping
with a pitcher pump about thirty gallons of water, the gas will heave out
some five hundred gallons more, and then will subside until again relieved
by the pump. I have arranged to separate the gas from the water as it
comes to the surface, and while the water is running we will burn the gas,
which makes a very hot fire, burning first blue and then red. We passed

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY.

31

through no beds of sand, and had some thick oil mixed in all the way-
down. I have had corn grow in the soil that came from four hundred and
fifty feet below the surface."

The water is clear and quite saline to the taste. The analysis gave:

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total solid residue by evaporation-

Soluble part after evaporation -

Insoluble part after evaporation

Chemically combined water and small amount of organic matter

1253.6

1184.9

35.1

33.2

214.56

202.76

6.00

5.80

The soluble part consists mainly of common salt, with an appreciable
amount of carbonates of the alkalies and a small amount of magnesic
chloride.

The insoluble part consists of carbonates of lime and magnesia, the lat-
ter predominating, also a small quantity of silica.

Artesian water, from "The Palms," Cal.; sent by Howard & Atwater.
From a well one hundred and twenty-five feet deep, supplying the public
fountain in part. Samples clear; odor of sulphuretted hydrogen percepti-
ble on opening demijohn.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in

10,000.

Total solid residue by evaporation

Soluble part after evaporation -

Insoluble part after evaporation

Chemically combined water and small amount of organic matter

32.53
14.66
14.78
' 3.09

5.57

2.51

2.53

.53

The soluble part consist of chlorides and sulphates of the sodium and
some potassium, common salt (sodium chloride) predominating. The
insoluble part consists of carbonates of lime and magnesia with small
amount of silica.

The mineral ingredients of this water hardly exceed in amount and kind
what is admissible in a water for domestic use, although it is exceedingly
hard, and might exert a slight purgative effect on persons unaccustomed
to it. For such cases it might be softened by the admixture of one tenth
of its bulk of clear lime water.

E. River and Irrigation Waters,

Carmel River water, from the main of the Pacific Improvement Company,
Carmel Valley, Monterey County. The water is clear, but shows a marked
alkaline reaction.

Total residue by evaporation

Again soluble after evaporation . .

Insoluble after evaporation

Water and a little organic matter

Grains per
Gallon.

15.77
5.37
8.03
2.37

32 REPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

The soluble part is quite strongly alkaline, and contains chiefly chloride
of sodium, with a small amount of sodium carbonate, and traces of sulphate
of magnesia.

The insoluble part is largely gypsum, with carbonates of lime and mag-
nesia, and some silica. There is no ammonia. An unexceptionable water
for either irrigation or domestic use, of moderate hardness.

River water, taken from Owens River at Independence Station; sent by
Mr. Emmet Rixford. The water had a brownish tinge, and was very faintly
alkaline. Lime water produced turbidity. The water contained:

Grains per
Gallon.

Total residue by evaporation 2.760 16.12

Again soluble after evaporation ..- 1.284 7.50

Insoluble after evaporation.. 1.008 5.88

Silica .404 2.36

Combined water and some organic matter. .468 2.74

The soluble part was very strongly alkaline, lime water producing a heavy
turbidity; showing the presence of considerable carbonate of sodium. In
addition, it contained considerable common and Glauber's salts, some sul-
phate of potassium, and a small quantity of sulphate of magnesia.

The insoluble part consists only of carbonate of lime and silica.

This water contains no unusual amount of mineral ingredients, and is
fully as well adapted to irrigation purposes as many of the waters so used
in the San Joaquin Valley. It contains a rather unusually large amount
of potash salts, thus contributing this important fertilizer to the soils on
which the water is used. The sample, unfortunately, was too small in
amount to permit of a quantitative determination of this substance.

THE WATER SUPPLY OF THE SAN BERNARDINO VALLEY.

The question of an adequate water supply for irrigation purposes is of
such capital importance to the southern portion of California that every-
thing bearing on that question assumes exceptional interest. Irrigation, so
far as it has gone, has transformed seeming deserts into a maze of gardens,
orchards, and orange groves. It is of no little importance to know how
far this transformation can go in the future, on the basis of the possible
supply of water from all sources — streams, springs, surface wells or sumps,
and, finally, artesian or bored wells in which the water either actually
overflows, or comes so near to the surface that it can be raised at a small
cost.

This question has formed the topic of much discussion in the San Ber-
nardino Valley; and anything that can throw farther light upon the sub-
ject is of the utmost consequence to its inhabitants. The natural living
waters have been fully appropriated long ago, and the building of the Bear
River reservoir for the storage of winter flood waters, at heavy expense,
shows the pressing need of farther supplies. Artesian wells, also, have
long ago been resorted to; but the extent to which the supply from this
source could be developed has never been made the subject of systematic
investigation.

The City of San Bernardino lies near the lower end of what is known as
the " upper valley," about fifteen miles from its head, on the gentle slopes

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY. 66

of which the towns of Redlands and Lugonia are located. This upper val-
ley seems to be quite sharply defined from the higher and drier lands (such
as those upon which Colton is situated) by a sandy ridge running diagon-
ally from the Cajon Pass in a southeasterly direction, and terminating in
abrupt bluffs, the base of which is washed by Lytle and Warm Creeks
near their junction, about a mile south from the town of San Bernardino.

This ridge is composed of stratified sand and gravel, and is eAddence that
similar materials have at a former geological period covered part or per-
haps the whole of the upper valley, but have since been removed by denu-
dation. At the eastern base of this bluff is a characteristic " cienega," with
black alluvial soil, from which water oozes wherever a ditch is dug, and on
which are some ponds that retain water during the entire season.

These cienegas form so frequent and so important a feature in Southern
California that the question of their origin is of exceptional interest. For
from them is derived a good deal of irrigation water even at present, and
if it could be shown that they are connected with sources of water supply
not merely local, but general, that supply might be utilized to a much
greater extent than is now the case.

A cienega is, in general, a spot or tract of moist land, usually character-
ized by a tree growth of cottonwood, willow, or sycamore; sometimes
showing a definite spring or springy place from which water issues or
moisture spreads; sometimes simply a general humidity that sustains the
growth of the water-loving trees, and oftentimes bunches of " tule " or
rushes. Wells dug in cienegas always find water; sometimes flowing
springs are developed, and of late borings made to various depths in such
tracts have been found to yield artesian water in abundance. While in
general cienega lands are most commonly low, yet in many places they are
found quite high up on sloping uplands, where their appearance excites
special remark, in view of the prevailing impression that Southern Cali-
fornia is a very dry country.

The Santa Ana River, issuing from its canon near the northeastern
border of the upper valley, traverses the latter rather diagonally, toward
the southwest. Its course is marked by a denser growth of trees than is
seen elsewhere, although the entire upper valley is more or less dotted with
trees, in contrast to the higher lands beyond the cross ridge, which are
generally treeless, except where a cienega affords unusual moisture. In
the river bottom or flood plain itself, also, clumps of dense tree growth
indicate areas of exceptionally abundant moisture. It is, in fact, a series
of cienegas, the development of water from which has only just begun;
and a special investigation of one of these was made at the request of the
proprietor during the April recess of the University, 1889.

The " Victoria " Cienega.

As the development of water on this cienega, undertaken by Mr. Matthew
Gage of Riverside, is probably the most extensive and systematic enter-
prise of the kind in the country, the subject is of general interest; and the
results of the observations are here given to the public by permission of
Mr. Gage.

As is well known, that gentleman has undertaken to bring under irriga-
tion the higher lands of the Riverside Valley — " East Riverside" and
"Arlington Heights "^ partly by means of water taken from the Santa
Ana River, some miles above the inlet of the old Riverside Canal, but
chiefly through the supply derived from artesian wells, a large number of
which have been bored by him at various points, but most extensively in

34 REPORTS OF EXPERIMENTS OF

what is known as the "water tract" of his property of two thousand four
hundred and thirty acres, named by him the " Victoria Ranch," and located
about twelve miles from the head of the valley, and three miles from the
City of San Bernardino. It is, therefore, near the lower end of the " upper
valley," and by barometric measurement lies about seven hundred feet
below the mouth of Santa Ana Canon, and probably a thousand feet below
the mouth of Mill Creek Canon, at the extreme eastern end of the valley.
The " water tract " above referred to is, in reality, merely an extensive
(five hundred and forty acres) tract of cienega land, lying almost entirely
within the first bottom of the Santa Ana River, that is here bordered by
steep blufi"s of alluvial deposits from fifteen to thirty feet high.

Surface and Surface Waters. — The surface of the river bottom is gener-
ally sandy, and shows the usual marks of successive changes of the
channel, which at some points even now encroaches upon the bordering
bluffs, causing them to topple into the water at times of flood. The bottom
is sparsely timbered with cottonwood, sycamore, and several varieties of
willows, mostly second growth, the larger timber have been cut away. It
is noticeable that these trees grow quite impartially on what appears to be
arid sand, and on the dense turf of grass and rushes that covers the outer,
and as usual, lower portion of the flood plain.

The cause of this uniform distribution of the water-loving trees becomes
apparent when we find that in digging almost anywhere to the depth of a
few feet, water is encountered; and ditches, partly natural, partly artificial,
along the foot of the bluff on either side, soon gather considerable streams
of running water. One of these, on the north edge of the bottom (the " Par-
rish ditch"), had at the time a running stream of one hundred and fifty-
seven miner's inches (of four inches head), although greatly obstructed by
vegetation and frequently spreading out laterally. A corresponding stream,
estimated at about seventy-five inches, was running at the foot of the
south-side blufi' and reached the river a short distance below. The water
enters these streams mostly in the shape of an imperceptible sidewise
ooze, so that they seem to grow without reasonable cause. At some points,
however, copious springs boil up from below with considerable energy, at
once suggesting an artesian rise. Several of the artesian wells now extant
have been bored on the site of such springs, whose water still boils up
around the pipe, not having apparently any direct connection with the
source from which the wells are supplied. A number of similar springs,
in which poles may be pushed down to great depths, exist elsewhere in the
region, one of the most notable being " Hunt's Spring."

These springs, as well as the streams in the river bottom, mentioned
above, are said on all hands to continue to flow without material diminu-
tion throughout the dry season; and it is obvious to the observer that the
supply thus obtainable from mere surface ditches in the vast " cienega"
lands of the Santa Ana Valley is extraordinarily large, and can be made
to add considerably to other sources of supply. Certainly not less than
three hundred inches of w;ater can thus easily be developed upon Mr.
Gage's " water tract," and with lateral ditches this amount can doubtless
be greatly increased. A still further increase could, in case of need, be
obtained by pumping from pits, as is done in the Sacramento Valley.

It is instructive to note that the present large supply of the Riverside
Water Company's canals, viz. : the entire volume of Warm Creek, origi-
nates in manner very similar to that mentioned in connection with the
Parrish Ditch. The sources of Warm Creek lie in cienegas in the level
valley, miles away from the foothills and unconnected with the summer

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY. 35

flow of the canons of the north border. From small springy places, e. g.,
near the Harlem Springs Hotel, and in other localities, there issue little
rivulets which, without the inflowing of any tributary worth considering,
increase in the course of eight miles to a volume of two thousand five hun-
dred to three thousand inches, constituting during the summer season the
bulk of the flow of the old Riverside Canal. This case exemplifies strik-
ingly the unusual abundance of water lying near the surface in this por-
tion of the valley.

Artesian Wells. — In the borings made in the "Water Tract" there
was usually penetrated from twenty to fifty feet of alluvial soil and sand,
the latter gradually increasing in coarseness downwards and bearing more
and more and larger gravel, until at the depth of ninety to one hundred
feet the material was largely cobbles of considerable size, rendering bor-
ing very difficult, and at times, when a vigorous flow of water was struck,
resulting in the forcible ejection of stones almost filling the (seven-inch)
pipe. It being found very difficult to reach any considerable depth with
so small a diameter of pipe, the ten-inch borehole has now been adopted
as the regular size on these lands. It has been noticed that the size of the
cobbles decreases towards the sides of the valley, where greater depths
are easily reached, while here two hundred and eleven feet is the greatest
depth attained with a ten-inch bore, and most of the good wells range
from about one hundred and forty feet upwards.

The interspaces between the cobbles are everywhere found filled with
sand and gravel; and the water-bearing gravel beds alternate with more or
less impervious beds of clayey material or hardpan, at intervals varying
from a few to fifteen and more feet. As each additional layer of impervious
material is penetrated by the auger, the rise of water is more energetic and
copious. But the gravel beds continue to the lowest depth reached; and,
according to the usual rule, they probably fill the depths of the valley to
the bedrock. How deep this may be we can but conjecture from the steep-
ness of the granite slopes that form the sides of the valley, and from the
fact that a borehole situated not far from the mouth of the San Timoteo
Canon, on the southeast corner of the valley (where the Southern Pacific
Railroad ascends to the Gorgonio pass), the depth of eight hundred and
fifty feet was reached while the auger was still bringing up the sandy and
gravelly clay characterizing that canon; in contrast to the streams enter-
ing the valley from the north and northeast, that discharge only cobbles,
gravel, and sand.

Details of Water Discharge. — As an illustration of the supply that may
reasonably be hoped for under the conditions here existing, a detailed
enumeration of the groups and individual wells thus far flowing, or ready
to flow, on the " water tract " of the Gage system is given below. The
tables show the number in each group, diameter of pipe used, distance of
wells from each other, and the water discharge of each. Both the lettering*
of the groups and the numbering of the wells proceeds up stream, or from
south to north, as the case may be.

Group "A."

Six wells, in line along the canal, the nearest being two thousand four
hundred feet sc^th from the headgate, and the total distance from No. 1
to No. 6, one thousand six hundred and sixty-five feet.

*The lettering is the same as that used by State Engineer Hall in his report on Irriga-
tion in South California, p. 251; but the number of wells has been increased since.

36

REPORTS OF EXPERIMENTS OF

No. OF Well.

Distance from Well
Next Abo ve— Feet.

Diameter of
Pipe — Inches.

Water Discharge-
Miner's Inches.*

1 - — --

2

249
304
323
722
67

10
10
10
10

7
7

36
68

3 -

35

4

18

5

52

6...

46

Total for group

260

Group "5."

Six wells, occupying an area of somewhat less than one tenth of an acre
(three thousand nine hundred square feet) , distant one thousand two hun-
dred feet from the headgate in a northwest direction; distant from (center
of) group "A" three thousand two hundred and seventy-six feet.

No. OF Well.

Distance from Well
Next Above — Feet.

Diameter of
Pipe — Inches.

Water Discharge —
Miner's Inches.*

1

15
15
40
50 '
40

7
7
7
7
7
7

28

2 -

3...

17
36

4

39

5

63

6

20

Total for group .

225

Group "0."

Four weak wells, all with seven-inch pipe; among the first bored, and
left as they are, with an average depth of only one hundred and ten feet;
on account of difiiculties encountered in the cobble layer at bottom, for
overcoming which, tools were not at hand at the time. The wells are
between ten and eighteen feet apart only, and yield from seven to twelve
inches of water each — total thirty-five inches. Doubtless the product of a
single ten-inch well successfully sunk to one hundred and fifty feet at this
place, would exceed the present flow of the four shallow wells.

This group is distant four thousand five hundred and fifty feet northeast
from group " B," and two thousand one hundred feet northwest from the
center of group " D."

Group "D."

This group consists of eleven wells, all with ten-inch pipe, and ranging in
depth from one hundred and ten to one hundred and sixty feet. Nine are
located on the south side and mostly quite near to the river bed; two are
near the north bank, one being i7i the present bed. The distance between
the centers of groups "A" and "D" is about five thousand eight hundred
feet; between " D " and " B," two thousand four hundred feet. The average
elevation of "D" above group " B," is about eighteen feet; above "A,"
thirty-one feet.

* Fifty rainer's inches, under a four-inch head, are equal to one cubic foot per second.

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY.

37

No. OP Well.

Distance from Well
next above — Feet.

Water Discharge —
Miner's Inches.

1 _

80
687
117
139
566
315

42
440

51

9

51

3 1

43

4 -.

55

5 --

82

6

65

7

35

8 -

09

9

37

10

300 (to No. 3
and No. 11)

11 .. ..

56

74

Total of group

571

Recapitulation.

Group " A" discharges. .-.^ 260 miner's inches.

Group "B" discharges-. --.'. 225 miner's inches.

Group "G" discharges. 35 miner's inches.

Group "D" discharges. 571 miner's inches.

Total for the twenty-seven wells 1,091 miner's inches.

All the measurements recorded above correspond to the condition of the
wells about thirty-six hours after all had been uncapped and had been
running their full streams.

This point is some importance, because measurements made imme-
diately, or soon after uncapping a well that has remained closed for some
time, show at first a considerably larger discharge, evidently due to accu-
mulated pressure, or what might be called a " local head," requiring some
time to run down to the normal discharge.

Degree of Interdependence of these Wells. — The extent to which the dis-
charge of any well or group of wells is influenced by that of others situ-
ated at a greater or less distance, is a question of great practical interest,
since upon the answer depends the aggregate amount of water to be ex-
pected from the farther development by the boring of additional wells. I
have tested the point in a variety of ways, the more important being the
following:

1. Well No. 6, in group " B," had for some time past remained capped
with an inch pipe carrying the water supply to a dwelling-house some
three hundred yards away; the water reaching the level of twenty feet six
inches above the casing when all the other wells of the group are capped.
It was found that when all the other wells of the group are iiwcapped, the
water level at the house falls about three feet seven inches. As stated
above, the total flow of the wells of this group is two hundred and twenty-
five inches; that of No. 6, twenty inches; it is distant only forty feet from
the well No. 5, having a flow of sixty-three inches, and all the rest of the
group lie within one hundred and thirty feet. Yet the measurement shows
that the opening or shutting-down of a flow of two hundred and five inches,
or ten times the amount of the flow of No. 6, influences it only to the
extent of not quite 18 per cent, or 1| per cent of the total flow concerned.

2. Well No. 2, of group " D," had been steadily running for more than
a year, all the rest of the group, as well as those of groups "B " and " C,"
being closed; it was discharging about sixty-one inches. After nine other
wells (Nos. 3 to 11 inclusive) had been uncapped. No. 2 was found to have

38 EEPORTS OF EXPERIMENTS OF

decreased to fifty-seven inches in the course of about three hours. On
opening No. 1, within eighty feet of No. 2, its flow suddenly fell off to fifty-
five inches, and forty-eight hours afterwards it had reached its minimum
flow of forty-eight and four tenths inches; which, however, five hours after
was found to have risen again to fifty-one, the figure adopted in the table
above. Such fluctuations of a few inches appeared at measurements made
at different times of the day, in almost all cases of strong flow; possibly as
the result of barometric variations or other diurnal causes.

It will be seen that in the case of this well the letting loose of five hun-
dred and twenty inches of water within an area of seventeen acres sur-
rounding it, caused a decrease of the flow it had when running by itself, of
only ten inches, being about one sixth, or 17 per cent, of its own flow when
all were closed, and 1| per cent of the total discharge of the group. This
result agrees very closely with that obtained in the case of well No. 6, of
group " B," reported above.

3. After all the wells had reached a state of constant discharge, the six
hundred and six inches of groups " C " and " D " were shut off" at about 5
p. M., in order to observe the effects on the other groups.

Group " B " was measured at 10 p. m., and was found to be discharging
two hundred and eleven inches; six hours before, when all the other wells
were, still open, the discharge was two hundred and five inches, showing a
difference of six inches, apparently caused by the shutting down of the
aggregate of six hundred and six inches at a distance averaging a mile.
This is a very slight effect, at best, being less than 1 per cent of the total
discharge shut off, and only f per cent of the total discharge concerned.
But the fact that on the morning of the same day the discharge of group
" B " was found to be two hundred and fifteen inches, renders it doubtful
that even the effect observed was directly due to the shutting down of
groups " C " and " D." Unfortunately time did not permit of the contin-
uation of the observations so as to settle this point definitely.

On the following day, eighteen hours after the shutting down of all the
other groups (representing an aggregate of eight hundred and thirty-one
inches at an average distance of about five thousand feet), group "A" was
remeasured. It was found that the discharge of well No. 1 had decreased
from thirty-six to twenty-nine inches, evidently in consequence of being
loaded down with a quantity of gravel that had slid in from above, the
pipe having sunk below the ground level. In the rest of the group (Nos.
2 to 6) there had been an increase over the discharge observed in the after-
noon of the previous day, from two hundred and twenty-four to two hun-
dred and thirty-three inches; a difference of nine inches, or 4 per cent in
the total discharge of the group, but only .37 per cent, or a little over a
third of 1 per cent of the total discharge concerned. In view of the daily
variations noted, it must here also remain in doubt to what extent the dif-
ference observed is due to the closing of the other wells.

4. A striking proof of the relative independence of these wells of one
another, when situated reasonable distances apart, is found in the "local
head," or accumulation of pressure that takes place so soon as an indi-
vidual well or a group of wells is shut down. Measured immediately after
uncapping a well that has remained closed for some time, the discharge is
found to be, in strong wells, from about 15 to 18 per cent; in very weak
wells, such as some of group "C," as much as 36 per cent more than that
to which the well finally settles down after a lapse of from twenty to thirty
hours. This accumulation and slow running-down of pressure proves that
these vents cannot be considered as connected by a hydrostatic pressure-
column pure and simple, as is sometimes the case. Manifestly the mass

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY. 39

of water is so subdivided by the frequently close-packed materials inter-
vening, laterally as well as vertically, between the vents made by the auger,
and in the interspaces of which the water is stored, that a rapid transmis-
sion of pressure is not possible, and that the laws of hydraulics and fric-
tion so materially modify the hydrostatic effect as to essentially govern
the actual discharge of each well. Moreover, the facts observed prove that
hundreds of inches of water-discharge bear but a very small ratio to the
total supply that lies behind these artesian fountains.

The Substrata of the Valley. — The nature of the materials underlying
the valley at large, below the alluvial silt and sand, is shown by the auger
to be gravel, ranging from pea size to cobbles of larger diameter than even
the ten-inch casings of the wells, more or less tightly packed with sand of
varying degrees of fineness. Cobbles nearly filling the large pipes have, as
before stated, repeatedly been ejected by water pressure. The character of
these cobbles cannot be mistaken; they represent the same rocks that are
now brought down from the caiions of the Mill Creek and Santa Ana River,
at the head of the valley, where a wilderness of the same materials, rang-
ing all the way from sand to boulders four and five feet in diameter, cover
many square miles of actual surface, and are exhibited in every break of
the country. There, as well as in the borings, occasional sheets or strata
of clay or other impervious materials alternate with the gravel deposits;
and it is known that with the penetration of each such impervious layer
additional water pressure is obtained in the wells. It can scarcely be
doubted that the sources of Warm Creek, and such outflows as Hunt's
Spring, above mentioned, indicate either the termination, or the perforation
from some cause, of such impervious water-shedding strata near the surface,
and that the origin of all these waters is essentially the same.

Source of the Water Supply. — A consideration of the above facts leads us
directly to the solution of the question regarding the derivation of the
water supply. What we now see happening during the rainy season at
the mouths of the canons has happened from time inamemorial; the
original depths of the San Bernardino Valley have been filled up to within
twenty or thirty feet of the present surface, with just such masses as we
now find surrounding the mouths of the canons, and this immense mass
is filled with water, annually replenished during the flood season, by the
absorption of a portion of the water issuing from the mountains, the rest
passing directly to the sea. The Santa Ana River issues from its canon
about twelve miles above the head of the Gage Canal; by barometric meas-
urement it descends about seven hundred feet in that distance, while Mill
Creek issues several hundred feet higher still. The water absorbed by the
gravel masses, and afterwards confined between, successive clay sheets,
might at the headgate, in a well two hundred feet deep, be under nearly
a thousand feet of pressure from the head of the valley. No such degree
of pressure can, however, manifest itself, because of the enormous friction
opposed to any movement, and doubtless also because of a steady though
slow seepage toward the sea, which relieves it below. It is this steadily
moving column that the artesian auger intercepts and taps; and the ques-
tion naturally presents itself whether, and to what extent, boreholes made
in the lower part of the valley would be likely to deplete those located
higher up, as would ordinarily be expected.

While in the absence of more exact data a close calculation in the
premises is not possible, the observations made in regard to the effects of
wells and groups of wells upon each other's flow suffices to show that such

40 REPORTS OF EXPERIMENTS OF

depletion is not at all likely to happen; on the contrary, under existing
conditions it is probable the boreholes tapping the slowly moving column
higher up the valley will, when tapping the same water-bearing stratum,
have somewhat the advantage of those located lower down. But as the
latter are more likely to reach the lower portions of the water-bearing mass,
and as the extent of that mass is so great, it is not likely that the calls
made upon the great stock will, for some time to come, be -such as to create
serious interference. This conclusion is the more probable, as in case of
any material lowering of the water level at the head of the valley, the
absorption during flood time would doubtless be increased in a certain ratio
to that lower level, and a larger proportion of flood waters would be stored
instead of rushing uselessly to the sea. To some extent, therefore, the
increased demand would doubtless be offset by an increased supply.

That such absorption does actually occur in the cobble beds at the
canon outlets, is plainly shown by the tunneling operations which have
been undertaken at that of the Santa Ana River, as well as on Mill Creek,
for unappropriated water. Water was found in these workings at from
twenty to forty feet, but not in very large supply, the leachy bottom also
causing much loss, as might be expected; yet the water supply for the
nascent town of Mentone has been thus obtained from the Mill Creek
gravel bed.

Appearances indicate that no very large accession of either water or
gravel comes or has come from the most southern of the three watercourses
entering the head of the valley, viz., the San Timoteo. Clay and silt with
but few cobbles form, and in the past have formed the deposits from that
stream; so that in a well sunk to the depth of eight hundred and fifty feet,
near Brookside Station, on the Southern Pacific Railway, nothing but such
clayey material with a little gravel has been found. But in a well bored
by Mr. Gage near Mound City, three miles farther down the valley, the
gravel and cobble beds were met with at about one hundred and twenty
feet. We are therefore justified in considering the whole width of the val-
ley as being occupied by the water-bearing gravel; and thus an area of
about ten by fourteen miles, filled with water-bearing deposits to unknown
depths, assuredly not less than one thousand feet, naust be assumed as
representing the water reserve, replenished during each rainy season. This
enormous mass has thus far been tapped to no greater depth than two
hundred and eleven feet (the maximum depth of any of the wells on the
" water tract " ) ; and in comparison with it, the water discharge from all the
wells, and even that of several times their number, appears quite small.

Besides the main affluents of the valley, mentioned above, the smaller
streams issuing from the north side of the valley, viz.. Plunge, City, and
Lytle Creeks, as well as Devil's Caiion, doubtless contribute something
towards the general store of water by absorption into the gravel beds through
which they have cut their present channels; and ^in flood-time these con-
tributions may be very considerable.

Possible Production from a given Area. — While, of course, there must be
in every artesian basin or storage mass, a limit beyond which the multi-
plication of boreholes fails to add to the total discharge, it is of interest to
estimate on the basis of the facts recorded above, the possible product of an
area advantageously situated, as is the "water tract" of the Gage system,
in the trough of the valley. For such estimate group " D " can most fairly
serve as a basis, as it contains the largest number of wells (eleven), most
uniformly distributed, and all of the same diameter of ten inches, which, as
stated above, is the minimum width that should be used here.

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY. 41

The extreme dimension of the rectangular area obtained by multiplying
together the greatest longitudinal and lateral distances of any two of the
eleven wells, is nineteen hundred by four thousand feet, equal to about
seventeen acres. If we increase these dimensions by adding to each, one
half of the average distance between the wells of the group (i. e., one hun-
dred and sixty -eight feet), the area that on ample allowance may be con-
sidered as occupied by these eleven wells would become twenty-seven
acres, or one twentieth of the whole tract (five hundred and forty acres).
Multiplying by twenty the total present discharge of the group — five hun-
dred and seventy-one inches — we obtain as the possible product of the
tract from artesian sources, eleven thousand four hundred and twenty
inches of water.

If we apply the same method of calculation to Group "A," using the
corresponding figures (sixteen hundred and sixty-five by two hundred and
seventy-seven), we find that they may be estimated to occupy an area of
eleven acres, being nearly the forty-first part of the total area. Multiply-
ing by forty-one the product of these six wells, being two hundred and
sixty inches, we come to a result not far different from that obtained in
the case of group " D," to wit, ten thousand six hundred and sixty inches
for the whole tract. Averaging the distances between the wells of the
respective groups to three hundred feet, we should, upon the above basis,
obtain from two hundred and seventy wells, each occupying about two
acres of ground, about ten thousand inches of water.

When it is considered that the experiments made have failed to show
unequivocal evidence of any influence of the several groups upon each
other, and that in the case of well No. 2, of group " D," the joint influence
often neighboring wells within an area of twenty-seven acres, when in full
flow amounted to only 17 per cent, or If per cent of the total discharge of
the group; and when it is farther considered that the deepest well thus
far bored on the "water tract" in question has only reached two hundred
and eleven feet out of the great depths still remaining untapped, it would
seem that the above calculation does not necessarily exaggerate present
possibilities, whatever might be the ultimate result of a very great or
indefinite multiplication of boreholes elsewhere in the valley. Even with
an allowance of 50 per cent discount on the above estimate for the " Vic-
toria " cienega, it and similar ones that may hereafter be developed, will
remain of first-class importance as sources of irrigation water.

The very large size of the cobbles encountered here indicates that the
present flood plain practically coincides with that of ancient times in which
the subterranean stream still moves, and is tapped most readily, and
toward which, rather than to the sides of the valley, it will always tend.
Whether this coincidence of the modern watercourse with the ancient one
is general or only local, cannot be determined from the facts now known.
The general conformation of the country admits of the supposition that
the original great stream flowed directly from the head of the valley toward
Los Angeles, and that the segregation of the Santa Ana and San Gabriel
Valleys into separate drainage systems was a comparatively late event.
If so, the main subterranean stream may still follow the old channel, and
could then be tapped by deep borings at points on the line between San
Bernardino, Pomona, and Los Angeles. If, on the other hand, there never
was a direct flow from San Bernardino Peak to Los Angeles, the most pro-
ductive wells would still have to be sought in or near the present axes of
the two valleys.

Considering the conditions set forth above, in connection with the large
watershed and extensive area of absorption and storage, we may reasona-

42

REPORTS OF EXPERIMENTS OF

bly expect that, until the ratio of the artificial outflow to the natural sup-
ply shall be very materially increased, the boring of additional wells in
such favorable localities will continue to yield remunerative returns, and
to increase very greatly the available water supply of the valley.

In this connection it should not be forgotten that the water power from
higher-lying wells may be made available for raising to higher ground
either the water from wells not having a sufiicient rise, or that derived
from surface ditches, or even from the river itself. Thus in the case of the
"water tract" specially examined, the five hundred and seventy-one
inches emerging from group " D " at an elevation of nearly twenty-eight
feet above the headgate of the canal, might be very effectively used in
pumping water from low-lying sumps in the river bottom, up to an availa-
ble level.

While there is reason to expect that the river bottom will furnish the
largest outflows, experience has amply shown that boreholes sunk even
quite near to the edges of the valley yield good results, and may generally
be relied upon for a generous domestic supply. Locally, and in the lower
part of the valley, outflows adequate for irrigation purposes may doubtless
be had on the higher lands, also.

Chemical Composition of the Waters. — It is of interest to compare the
mineral ingredients of these waters among themselves as well as with
those of others of similar origin in the State ; for it is well known that
while some of the artesian waters thus far obtained are very pure, others
again are so highly charged with mineral matters as to render their use
for irrigation impracticable, especially in presence of "alkali" salts
already preexisting in the soils.

The subjoined analyses of two waters from artesian wells of the " Gage
system " and of the water of Warm Creek (constituting the main bulk of
the Riverside Canal), make a very favorable showing for the water supply
of the San Bernardino Vallev:

Analyses of Waters from San Bernardino Valley.

Composition in 10,000 Parts.

Gage System — Artesian
Wells.

Group D,

No. 5.

Group A,

No. 2.

Warm Creek.

Total residue

Soluble part

Sodium chloride (common salt). .
Sodium sulphate (Glauber's salt).

Sodium carbonate (sal soda)

Potassium sulphate -.

Insoluble after evaporation

Calcium sulphate

Calcium carbonate

Magnesium carbonate .

Silica -

1.911
.41s
.063
.193
.102
.060

1.493

1.017
.232
.244

2.266
.488
.091
.313
.021
.063

1.775
.078

1.212
.249
.239

2.604
1.119
.257
.582
.200
.080
1.435
.146
.762
.253
.324

Summary Statement in Grains per Gallon.

Total residue

Soluble part

Insoluble after evaporation

15.21
6.53
8.67

WATEKS AND WATER SUPPLY. 43

In order to appreciate the meaning of the above analyses, it should be
understood that of the solid contents of the waters the portions designated
as "insoluble after evaporation " are not only either unobjectionable or use-
ful to vegetation, but are in a short time absorbed and retained in the soil;
their tendency is to render the water "hard" in domestic use, but their
quantity in all three waters is very moderate only; considerably less, for
example, than is found in the waters of the Santa Clara Valley, and in the
Coast Range generally, where twenty and more grains per gallon, of which
two thirds of the "insoluble" character, is of common occurrence.

Most important to the irrigator, however, are the " soluble " or saline
ingredients, which when in large amounts represent so much "alkali"
added to a soil perhaps already alkaline. It will be seen that these ingre-
dients are in the well waters represented by the very small amount of about
two and two thirds grains (taking the average), being only a little more
than is found in the water of Kern River, and about one third of the corre-
sponding contents of the Los Angeles River, the latter having seventeen and
one half grains of total mineral contents.

It will be noted that the water of Warm Creek, while having no more of
the " insoluble " or earthy ingredients than the wells, carries more than
twice as much of the " soluble " or saline compounds; whether originally
or from outside accessions, is not clearly apparent from the nature of the
salts. The quantity of the latter is not yet large, and is, moreover, of little
consequence in the porous and well-drained soils of Riverside.

There is, however, one point that must not be passed over in the valua-
tion of these waters for irrigation purposes. It is the unusually large pro-
portion of potash salts contained in them, which, at the rate at which water
is commonly used in that region, say one inch to five acres, will amply
sufiice to provide all that most crops require of that important fertilizer.
For with the full use of one-fifth inch through each year (corresponding
to a rainfall of nearly thirty-five inches), each acre would currently receive
no less than forty-seven pounds of potash sulphate, worth over $1 65 at
wholesale, from the well water, and about sixty-three pounds of the same
from the creek water. Considering the quality of their soil, this means
that the purchase of potash fertilizers will hardly ever trouble the irri-
gators of Riverside.

Cienegas of the Chino Ranch and of the Pomona Slope. — During a short
sojourn at Pomona, I had occasion to observe cursorily, under the courte-
ous guidance of Mr. H. A. Palmer, the conditions of water supply in that
region.

The Pomona settlement occupies a gentle southward slope descending
from the direction of the canon of San Antonio Creek, which drains the
slopes of "Old Baldy " and San Antonio Mountains. On the Pomona slope
there are numerous (mostly small) cienegas, characterized by sycamore, Cot-
tonwood, and willow trees, and showing a growth of grass and tule through-
out the season. In some of these, flowing springs actually exist; in others,
artesian wells have been successfully sunk, contributing materially to the
irrigation supply of the settlement. It is probable that here the waters of
the canon have played the same part as have those of Mill Creek and Santa
Ana River in the upper valley, first depositing great gravel beds in front, and
then filling them with its waters, which find local outlets in the cienegas
and apparently a more general one in the plain occupied by the great
Chino Ranch, finally joining the Santa Ana River below South Riverside.
On the latter, copious natural springs and a large area of moist lands, on
which drainage rather than irrigation is called for, and in which ditches

44 BEPORTS OF EXPERIMENTS OF

find the same general and abundant seepage referred to in connection with
the " Victoria '^ water tract, create a surprise to those who have heard so
much of the " dry southern country." The natural remark called for is
that if only all this water could be suitably distributed over the higher
lands, there need not be an acre of unirrigated land in that fair valley.

As Pomona is situated on the divide between the waters of the Santa
Ana and San Gabriel Rivers, the precise derivation of this abundant
moisture is somewhat uncertain, and is a question of no mean practical
importance. The geological nature of the western border of the valley
proves that no large accession to the waters of the region can come from
that direction; and the head of Chino Creek, like that of Warm Creek, lies
in a nearly level country and seems to have no particular beginning. A
systematic investigation of the structure of this region would probably lead
to important results, in respect to additional sources of water supply avail-
able for the irrigation of the higher lands.

THE LAKES OF THE SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY.

The rapid contraction by evaporation of the three lakes of the upper
San Joaquin Valley, the consequent concentration of their waters into
alkaline lyes too strong for animal life, and the nature of the soils laid bare
on their margins, have formed the subjects of investigation and discussion
in former reports of this department, especially in connection with the
reclamation and cultivation of alkali soils. (See reports for 1879, pp. 30
to 39; 1880, pp. 12 to 33; 1882, pp. 56 to 60; 1884, pp. 61 to 69; 1886, revised
reprint from report of 1880: " Alkali Lands, Irrigation and Drainage in
their Mutual Relations," 45 pp.) It is a matter of regret that it has not
been possible to pursue the subject by personal visits as systematically as
its practical importance and theoretical interest might have warranted ; for
we are here in presence of a group of phenomena that have been repeated
many times in past geological epochs, and for the study of which, in their
physical, chemical and biological aspects, opportunity is not often afforded.
Hence, while the information and data here given are of necessity incom-
plete and fragmentary, they are of interest as affording an insight into
processes regarding which but little is thus far on record; and their com-
munication may perhaps serve to incite others having the opportunity to do
so, to a closer study of the progressive changes.

For a better understanding of the situation in the Kern and Tulare
basins, the following statements from former reports are reprinted:

A personal examination of Kern Lake, and of the region lying between it and Buena
Vista Lake, as well as of the Mussel Slough country, made under the auspices of the
United States census, in March, 1880, satisfied me that in none of these rich agricultural
sections could the slightest increase of alkali be safelj^ risked ; and analyses subsequently
made of the waters of both Kern and Tulare Lakes prove that a Very few years' use of the
water then filling either of these reservoirs would be promptly fatal to the' productiveness
of the lands irrigated. As regards Kern Lake, this was obvious enough from a casual
examination and tasting of the water. Having been shut off from the natural influx of
Kern River for a number of years, it has been rapidly evaporating and receding from its
former shores, so that at the time of my visit a difference in level of over four feet had
been produced in fifteen months, leaving high and dry a boat wharf built at that distance
of time. About eighteen months before all the fish and turtles in the lake had suddenly
died, creating a pestilential atmosphere by their decay; and even the mussels were now
mostly dead, a few maintaining a feeble existence. A strong alkaline taste and soapy feel-
ing of the water fully justified their choice of evils. The tule marsh, laid dry by the reces-
sion of the lake, was thickly crusted with alkali, and the tules were dead, except where
still moistened by the water "of the lake, showing that the latter was not yet too strong for
such hardy vegetable growth, albeit fatal to animal life.

Buena Vista Lake was stated to be in a similar condition, but not yet quite so far
advanced in evaporation, and still maintaining some animal life in its waters, having lost
its connection with the river more recently. Tulare Lake is well known to be full of fish,

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY.

45

and as it annually receives the overflow of Kern and the regular inflow of Kings River,
its evaporation and recession has been much slower; yet its water's edge is now distant
several miles from the former shore line, and as the water of the rivers is more and more
absorbed by irrigation, it will doubtless continue to recede until a point is reached at
which the regular seepage from the irrigated lands will balance the evaporation. This
epoch would seem, however, to be quite in the future as yet, for the rate of recession has,
apparently, not sensibly changed in the last few years. It is not likely in any case that
the water of the lake will be more abundant or less impregnated with mineral matter than
is now the case, at the time when the state of equilibrium shall have been reached.

With the lights now before us, it can hardly be regretted that the old Westside ditch,
which was to irrigate the lower country with the corrosive waters of Tulare Lake, was not
successful. The lake level is now several feet below the bottom of that outlet, and the
lake keeps receding annually, and its alkali becomes stronger as the mass of the water
decreases. It is difficult to say where it will stop ; but if, as is probable, a state of
equilibrium is reached whenever the waters of Kern and Kings Rivers shall have fully
filled the parched depths of the plains by a more general system of irrigation, it is not at
all probable that the lake water will thereby become fresher; on the contrary, such seep-
age water will be likely to bring into it the alkali now dried up in the lower strata, and the
annual evaporation will concentrate the solution more and more. It would certainly be
most desirable to utilize the lake as a great reservoir for irrigation supply ; but to render
this practicable, it would be necessary to first empty out or displace the mass of alkaline
water at present occupying the basin. The discussion of the feasibility of such an under-
taking, however, belongs to the province of the engineer corps.

The analyses referred to above gave the following results (in grains per gallon) :

Kern Lake.

Tulare Lake.

Date of taking sample-

Total solid contents

Soluble after evaporation

Potassium sulphate

Sodium chloride (common salt)..
Sodium sulphate (Glauber's salt).

Sodium carbonate (sal soda)

Insoluble after evaporation

Calcium carbonate

Magnesium carbonate

Silica .-

Organic matter and water

March, 1880
211.50

182.75

115.41

64.37

9£9

22.43

January, 1880

81.80

71.16

( 3.24

< 22.77

( 17.23

27.92

8.36

2.97

4.95

.44

2.28

To convey to those unaccustomed to the consideration of such matters an idea of the
meaning of the above figures, it may be stated that the solid contents of river waters vary
usually from five to twelve grains per gallon. The water of Tulare Lake, where it is undi-
luted by the inflow of Kings River, is therefore about ten times, and that of Kern Lake
about twenty-six times, stronger than an average river water. Even this, however, con-
veys but an inadequate idea of the relation sustained by these waters to organic life. The
average sea water (containing mainly common salt) is about ten times stronger than the
water of Kern Lake as regards its solid contents; yet in sea water fresh water fish live
freely during part of the season, while in Kern Lake the fish died at a time when, accord-
ing to a minimum estimate, the water must have had about twice the strength of Tulare
Lake, or about one thirteenth of the strength of sea water. This shows strikingly the
deadliness of the Kern Lake alkali as compared with sea salt, or, in other words, of Kern
Lake water as compared with tide water.

Condition of the Lake Water in June, 1888.

Early in June, 1888, at my request, Mr. B. F. Moore, Patron of the
Experimental Station near Tulare City, sent a messenger to obtain a
sample of the lake water in order to ascertain the progress of evaporation.
The sample was taken two and one half miles out in the lake, eight
miles east of the mouth of Kings River, not far from the Cross Creek
fisheries.

The water had a general greenish turbidity and considerable greenish
sediment at the bottom of the bottles. This sediment showed under the
microscope an abundance of green cellular plants, mingled with adherent
fine silty matter, partly silicious, partly calcareous.

46 EEPORTS OF EXPEEIMENTS OP

A partial analysis of this water by Assistant Geo. E. Colby, resulted as
follows :

Total solid contents

Soluble after evaporation

Sodium carbonate (sal soda).
Insoluble part

Organic matter and water....

Grains
per Gallon.

204.7
186.9

74.3
3.7

14.1

The qualitative analysis of the soluble and insoluble parts showed the
same ingredients as found in the previous examination.

It will be seen from a comparison of this analysis with those made in
1880, that the solid contents of the lake water had increased very nearly
two and one half times in the eight years, and that its concentration approx-
imated closely to that of Kern Lake in 1880. Yet it appears that an
abundance of fish survived, at least of certain kinds, although, as will be
seen below^, the mussels had already succumbed.

The Condition of Tulare Lake in Winter of 1888-9.

Having been informed in November, 1888, that " the fish in Tulare Lake
were dying by shoals," I concluded that the water of that basin had, by
evaporation, at length reached the limit of endurance of its inhabitants,
who had probably found themselves unfit to survive the altered surround-
ings. Desiring to verify the facts, I, in January, 1889, made arrangements
to visit the lake in company with Mr. J. G. Woodbury, of the State Fish
Commission; but being delayed by imperative duties, I requested Mr.
Woodbury to proceed alone, and while making his observations on the
economic side of the question, to collect a sample of water and such other
data as might present themselves. He accordingly visited the northeast-
ern part of the lake, near the mouth of Cross Creek, during the first week
in February, and on his return communicated to me the following interest-
ing account, which is here reproduced by his consent:

On the train I met several gentlemen who live along the railroad, opposite the lake,
and was told by them that Tulare City was the best place to start from for a visit to the
fishing grounds. I engaged team and driver to take me to the fishery near Cross Creek,
a distance of about twenty-five miles, according to the driver's statement, and not less
than twenty by my own estimate. At this point the lake receded last year about half a
mile, and in consequence the fishermen were compelled to move their position about a
mile farther into the lake. Their pound for the fish is half a mile from the shore, and
their seine is pulled two and one half miles farther out into the lake. It is afterward
pulled in by a horse and windlass located about two hundred yards from the shore, on a
platform where the horse is also stablecj.

They catch about one hundred and twenty-five pounds at a' haul at this fishery; the
fish come in on the seining grounds in warm weather rather than when it is cold; and as
the same ground is continually seined over, it seems that the fish must travel consider-
ably to keep it constantly stocked.

I inquired about the reported dying of the fish. The fishermen said that it occurred
last summer and autumn, and that it was mostly catfish, " greasers," and some of the so-
called trout, also some carp, but very few perch. Now, it is the perch that is so much
valued by the fishermen ; in fact, the perch is what they fish for, as the catfish do not sell
so well, and the greasers are of no account. The "trout," of which 1 did not see any, they
say are very soft and do not keep well, also are very insipid.

The perch is certainly a very fine fish, large, bright, and clean-looking; they are very
good eating, as I had occasion to verify. These perch have enormous mouths, and in
that of every one in the pound can be seen a "shiner" (or "slick," as they call the fish),
with the tail sticking out of the great mouth, being drawn farther in as the process of
digestion proceeds. One perch which I took along to have cooked, I took by the gills, and
looking down his big mouth, I saw the tail of a fish, which I readily got hold of with my
fingers and pulled out. It was six inches long and only its head partly digested. The

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY. 47

fishermen say that all these perch when caught have fish in their mouths, in proof of
which he pulled out one at random with a dip net, and showed the perch with a shiner's
tail still out of the mouth.

The fishermen state that no catfish are now caught, while two and three years ago they
would get a wagon load at each haul; also, that trout are now seldom caught, although
they used to be very abundant. The men expressed no opinion as to the cause of the
death of the fish, but stated that the catfish especially were drifted upon the shore, dead,
by thousands.

Catfish, however, are found by millions at present in the creeks and sloughs that run
into the lake. A gentleman who lives on his farm fully ten miles from the lake, and who
fishes in a small way for his own table, is of the opinion that the destruction of the catfish
and carp is caused by their being driven on the shallows by the wind, and left in shallow
pools which, when the water recedes, soon become so hot that the fish die. I questioned
him very particularly about this; and as he is very intelligent, and his father was a fish-
erman whom he frequently assisted in his work, his views are entitled to weight. He has
a boat and sailed around the lake last summer, and states that the deepest part of the
lake, in the channel which runs from south to north in the direction of the old outlet into
the San Joaquin River, does not exceed twenty feet; that outside of that channel it is gen-
erally not over four feet, gradually shallowing toward the shore. Notwithstanding this
shallowness, the action of the wind should mingle the different portions pretty thoroughly
and render the alkali about even throughout.

Before starting on this trip he was told that he would have a good wind throughout his
journey, as the wind blew from the center of the lake toward the shore. He states that
he found it to be true ; that he had the wind " abeam " all the way.

The two bottles of water I sent you were taken at various distances, from the shore out
to the fish-pound. Although the fishery is located off the mouth of Cross Creek, as there
is no water in that creek for several miles out from the lake the water of that portion
could not have been perceptibly freshened by its influx at this season, although some
seepage doubtless occurs. The water of the lake is very muddy, and has a nasty taste and
smell ; very much like that of a well about a mile from shore and one hundred feet deep,
which was, however, drank by the people at the farmhouSe, as well as by their stock, and
left them all healthy. One of the horses of my team, however, was relaxed in the bowels
all the way to Tulare, and the same happened to the driver and to myself.

All the shore of the lake for miles, as far as I could see, was strewn with mussel or clam
shells; the surface of the ground was white with them, and the wheels of the carriage
crushed through them as though more than half the substance of the ground was actually
made up of shells, as I have no doubt is really the case. They told me that these shells
extend here, as thickly as on top, down to the depth of a hundred feet, as shown in the
well referred to above. Not a live clam can be foimd in the lake now.

I have subsequently been informed that ten years ago there were large numbers of live
mussels in Tulare Lake, and that the hogs used to live on them then ; that they would wade
out into the lake and plunge their heads under water, get hold of a mussel and hold their
noses up in the air and chew them up.

All the (seven or eight) fisheries are located within four miles of Cross Creek mouth;
no fishing is now or appears to have been done near the mouth of Kings River, ten miles
to northward, for the reason (according to the fishermen) that the water is too shallow.

For the whole distance of twenty miles from Tulape City the country is of remarkable
fertility, almost level, and where put into wheat the growth was strong, even to within
two miles of the shore of the lake, where the land had been plowed through solid tule roots.
The growth was very compact, strong, and of a beautiful green color, and had stooled out
abundantly; which, to my mind, showed that the rawness of the soil or the quantity of
alkali had but little effect upon the growth. For long distances among the tules, alfileria
covered the ground. I had no idea of the value and extent of the arable land of Tulare
County until I rode over the immense extent of that plain to the lake. 1 think the time
will come when Tulare will be one of the very best of the agricultural counties of the State.

Speaking of the future of the lake — it must have been a good deal lower than it is now,
for near the mouth of Cross Creek there are many stumps which were under water only
last year, and among which the fishermen used to get their nets entangled ; these stumps
are now just at the water's edge. Of course they could not have grown under water.
Again, in a little surface well near the landing place at the fishery, there is at the depth of
about eighteen inches, all around, a ring of blackish organic matter or mold, quite distinct
from the yellowish clayey earth both above and below it. It looked as if it might be
decomposed tules?, and if so, the water must have been off the ground long enough to
allow these tules to be decomposed and made into soil. There are now under this water
about two hundred thousand acres of land of what might be made the best quality, and
this land under alfalfa would be worth many times what it is now under water, for fishes.
Why would it not be a good idea to drain this lake down four feet lower, to the banks of
that channel, into the San Joaquin River, through a canal that would at the same time
serve as a'waterway up to that old channel in the lake, through which boats could go
with freight? I think that by this scheme in a short time all the surplus alkali would be
drained into the ocean from the lake and the surrounding country, for as the fresh water
from the mountains is spread over the land it must sink down and gradually push the
more alkaline waters down the canal. So the land would in time be freed from alkali and
the canal would be kept full by underdrainage, which the lake now receives and evapo-
rates.

48

REPORTS OF EXPERIMENTS OP

Present Composition of Tulare Lake Water. — The sample of water sent by-
Mr. Woodbury was quite turbid, partly from fine mud, partly from the
presence of greenish micro-organisms. Its taste was flattish saline, and
•quite nauseous to the stomach. Exposed to the light, it soon became filled
with rapidly increasing green gelatinous films and cocci, the exact nature
of which was not investigated.

Upon filtration, which progressed very slowly, and did not clear the water
completely (as is usual with waters impregnated with alkaline carbonates),
considerable organic matter still remained in solution, and had to be
removed by ignition before proceeding with the analysis. In presence of
an excess of carbonate of soda, this ignition could not interfere with the
accuracy of the determinations of acidic ingredients.

The result was as follows:

Analysis of LaJce Tulare Water.*
Specific gravity, 1.0050 at 62.5 degrees.

Grains per
Gallon.

Parts in
10,000.

Total solids

Soluble after evaporation

Sodium chloride (common salt)..
Sodium sulphate (Glauber's salt)

Sodium carbonate (sal soda)

Potassium sulphate

Insohible after evaporation.

Calcium sulphate (gypsiim)

Calcium carbonate.

Magnesium carbonate

Silica .-

Organic matter and water

303.07

297.97

95.79

73.76

94.74

15.68

6.97

1.47

1.07

2.55

1.87

16.12

51.88

47.93

16.40

12.63

16.22

2.68

1.19

.25

.18

.44

.32

2.76

Comparison of the Water at Different Periods.

The following table summarizes the composition of the Tulare lake water
at the three different periods (in grains per gallon) :

Date of taking sample

Total solid contents

Soluble after evaporation

Sodium chloride (common salt) ..
Sodium sulphate (Glauber's salt).

Sodium carbonate (sal soda)

Potassium sulphate .- _

Insoluble after evaporation

Calcium sulphate (gypsum)

Calcium carbonate

Magnesium carbonate.

Silica

Organic matter and water

January.

81.80
71.16
22 77
17^23
27.92
3.24
8.36

2.97

4.95

.44

2.28

June.
204.7
186.9

74.3

"37

14.1

I'ebruary.

303.07

f79.97

95.79

73.76

94.74

15.68

6.97

1.47

1.07

2.55

1.87

16.12

The figures in the above table hardly require comment unless it is to
draw attention to the extremely rapid increase of the solid contents of the
water between June, 1888, and February, 1889, as compared with the effect
produced during the previous seven and a half years. The latter was

*Analysis by Mr. E. M. Hilgard, special student in the Agricultural Laboratory.

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY. 49

about two and a half times, or 150 per cent on the whole, or an average of
13 per cent a year; while in the eight months preceding the last examina-
tion, the increase was nearly 45 per cent. It should be noted that these
eight months were remarkable for very great evaporation elsewhere on the
coast, also; and that they formed the end of three years of rather deficient
rainfall in the State. The more abundant moisture of the season just
passed may have stopped, or perhaps even reversed the process^— a point
which will receive attention within a short time. It will then be possible
to predict with some degree of approximation how nearly the condition of
natural equilibrium between the evaporation from the lake surface and the
seepage from the streams and irrigated plains referred to above, is being
approached, and to forecast the future of the lake and of its inhabitants if
left to themselves.

Whether or not it will be expedient to interfere with the natural course
of events, either for the establishment of a great irrigation reservoir, or (as
suggested by Mr. Woodbury) for the reduction of the lake to a mere water-
way in order to reclaim the lands now covered by it, is a question too com-
plex to be discussed here. The answer will in a measure be determined
by the decision of another question, viz.: Whether the increased saline
strength of the lake water is due wholly to evaporation, or in part to con-
centrated solutions of alkali extracted from underlying beds by the inward
seepage. If a consideration of the area and depth lost by the lake within
the last year shall show that there has been a distinct accession of alkali
salts from the outside, the use of the drained lake-bed as an irrigation
reservoir will be of very doubtful practicability, as it would imply an annual
addition of such salts to those already contained in the natural soils irri-
gated therewith.

The importance of the latter consideration is made apparent from the
results of an examination of a soil from the immediate border of Tulare
Lake, near its then (1879) southeast corner, made in 1879 and given in
the report for 1879, p. 27.

1^0. 77 — ^^ Dry hog soil, ''^ from Tulare Lake; sent by Mr. E. R. Thomason,
August 12, 1878.

The specimen was taken from the reclaimed " swamp and overflowed "
land, on the east side of Tulare Lake; is inclosed by a levee, and lies
below the high-water mark of the lake; eighteen months before it was all
under water, but at the time of taking the sample the water was half a
mile from the levee. The first vegetation that started after it was laid dry
was "wild parsley," followed later by wire grass, salt grass, and tule.
The surface at the present time shows no salt and but little indication of
alkali. Grain, however, " burns ap " when hot weather comes, even though
the ground be moist. Garden vegetables look well until blooming time,
and then die.

When sampling the soil at the time stated, it was found to be baked
quite hard for the first six inches; from that line down to twenty inches,
to which depth it was taken, it was " boggy and soft." The soil as received
is a somewhat bluish-gray clayey sediment, containing a good deal of
small gravel and shells intermixed. Its reaction is alkaline, though not
sharply so.

Mechanical Analysis.

Gravel and shells above 0.6 ram. in diameter . 4.1 per cent.

Fine earth 95.9 per cent.

50 REPORTS OF EXAMINATIOlSfS OF

Mechanical Analysis of Fine Earth.

Clay - - - - 29.793 per cent.

Sediment of <0.25 mm 13.840 per cent.

Sediment of 0.25 mm _ 1.567 per cent.

Sediment of 0.5 mm - 2.195 per cent.

Sediment of 1.0 mm 8.183 per cent.

Sediment of 2.0 mm 8.622 per cent.

Sediment of 4.0 mm - 9.722 per cent.

Sediment of 8.0mm .- -.. - 6.641 per cent.

Sediment of 16.0inm.-- 2.115 per cent.

Sediment of 32.0mm -.'. 2.407 per cent.

Sediment of 64.0 mm 1.275 percent.

*86.360 per cent.

According to this analysis this is a clay soil, which, however, should
till well, in consequence of the uniform distribution of the sediments. It
seems, however, to acquire tilth with some difficulty at present.

Chemical Analysis.

Insoluble residue .-- - - 67..34 per cent.

Potash 1.05 per cent.

Soda .84 per cent.

Lime - 6.51 per cent.

Magnesia 3.96 per cent.

Br. ox. manganese - — 04 per cent.

Ferric oxide 5.05 per cent.

Alumina _ - - 7.97 per cent.

Phosphoric acid ._ - -- .32 per cent.

Sulphuric acid . .08 per cent.

Organic matter and water -.. 3.71 per cent.

Carbonic acid - 4.42 per cent.

101.29 per cent.

Humus. - .468

Available inorganic - - 2.184

This shows the general composition of the soil to be excellent, so far as
the important ingredients of plant food are concerned. The amounts of
potash and phosphoric acid are equal to those in the most productive soils
of the Mississippi bottom, and the large percentage of lime should insure
its thriftiness and kindly tillage. But it is evident from its alkaline reac-
tion, and the large percentage of soda shown, that it contains enough of
the true " alkali" to interfere seriously with tillage as well as with the wel-
fare of vegetation. At the same time the solution formed by hydrochloric
acid showed the want of aeration in giving an indication of iron protoxide.
These inferences are, moreover, corroborated by the observation made by
Mr. Thomason, that wheat made some fine ears on the upper portion of a
part of the levee where, of course, the rain had washed out the soda and
the air had had ample access. On the basis of these facts the following
advice as to the treatment of the land was given to Mr. Thomason:

First of all give the soil a dressing of at least six hundred pounds of plaster per acre.
You will then find that it will till better, and that weeds will grow on it different from
those it now bears.

The soil evidently has not had sufficient time and tillage to get thoroughly aired after its
reclamation from the waters of the lake. It evidently needs greatly a summer's fallow,
and that to the greatest depth that a big plow and a strong four-horse team can go.

If I understand correctly that it was " boggy" at a depth a little below six inches, it is
too full of water yet to allow of the healthy life of crop roots. This implies drainage of
some kind, and protection against the backwater of the lake.

*NoTE. — The low summation of this analysis is due to the dissolution of lime, and some
alkaline salts, in the large quantity of water employed, the clay at first failing altogether
to diflase uiitil these salts had been washed out. The loss bears mainly, of course, upon
the fine sediments.

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY. 51

It would seem from the account given of the condition of crops near
the lake, in the communication of Mr. Woodbury, that the difficulties
experienced in the case of the soil of Mr. Thomason's land do not exist
everywhere on the present and ancient lake border. Such differences
doubtless arise from location near to or away from the mouths of streams,
as against that in bays or inlets, or along the general shore line. But
while these various soils may differ in respect to their mechanical com-
position, there can be little question of their eminent intrinsic fertility
when reclaimed from the water and cultivated with due regard to the
avoidance of the " rise of the alkali " which not only exists within the
sediments themselves, but also (as has been often observed) at some points
exists in solid form deposited at some distance beneath the surface. It
will therefore require special precautions to cultivate these lands success-
fully, but their immense stock of native fertility will amply repay consid-
erable care in their management, which can undoubtedly prevent injury
from, or perhaps even permanently cure, the surplus of alkali. It should
not be overlooked that the latter contains among its ingredients so large
a proportion of potash salts, that the cultivator will probably be relieved
of the need of replacing this portion of the drain caused by cropping, for
an indefinite length of time.

INVESTIGATIONS ON THE PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF THE SALINE CONTENTS
OF WATERS, AND OF NATURAL "aLKALI."

While the analysis of the mineral portions of natural waters must, when
properly carried out, yield identical results in the hands of different chemists
so far as the ultimate ingredients are concerned, the exact manner of their
grouping, or, in other words, the compounds formed by them in presence
of each other, often admits of discussion, and in some cases presents ques-
tions of extreme difficulty, requiring the best resources of chemistry and
physics for their solution. As in many cases, moreover, the exact nature
of the compounds present is of directly practical importance in determin-
ing the uses to which waters or alkali soils may or may not be put, I have
thought it necessary to investigate more exactly some points which fre-
quently present themselyes in the examination of such questions, in this
State and elsewhere. These investigations are as yet far from being com-
pleted, but have already yielded results of sufficient interest to have formed
the subject of a communication to the American Society for the Promotion
of Agricultural Science, at its meeting held at Cleveland, Ohio, in August,
1888. This communication was published in the proceedings of that meet-
ing; but the limited circulation of that publication renders it desirable to
reproduce it here, although, on account of its somewhat abstrusely techni-
cal nature, it may be, in large part, intelligible only to professional chem-
ists. Its very direct bearing upon the important subject of the formation
and repression of " black alkali " commends it to the forbearance of unpro-
fessional readers:

On the Mutual Reactions of Carbonates, Sulphates, and Chlorides of the
Alkaline Earths and Alkalies.

By E. W. HiLGARD and A. H. Weber.

[In the course of a long series of water analyses made in connection with
Geological Surveys and Experiment Station work, I have been struck with
the almost invariable occurrence of sulphates (usually gypsum) in the
" insoluble residue " obtained by the evaporation of the waters and leaching-

52 EEPOKTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

out of the soluble salts. That this should occur in the case of acid or
neutral saline waters, almost always containing gypsum in more or less
considerable amounts, is natural enough; for even when gypsum is not
contained as such in the natural water, it is predicable that it might form
in the process of evaporation under various conditions, by double decom-
position.

Upon the suppositions ordinarily held, the filtrate from such a residue
should have a neutral reaction; the existence of alkali carbonate being
supposed to be inconsistent with that of an earthy sulphate or chloride.
Only, the alkaline reaction ensuing in the course of time as the result of
the slight solubility of calcic and magnesic carbonates, must not be con-
founded with that which appears instantly, or after a very short lapse of
time, when an alkali carbonate is present even in minute quantities.

A common source of error in this connection is the strongly alkaline
reaction consequent upon an excessive ignition of the evaporation residue,
whereby the earthy carbonates may have been rendered caustic. In order
to avoid errors from this source, the residue must always after ignition be
recarbonated by means of carbonic acid gas; recarbonation by means of
ammonic carbonate being of course inadmissible in the presence of sul-
phates.

But after the observance of all these precautions, there still remains a
large number of cases in which the leached residue contains gypsum, and
yet the filtrate is unmistakably alkaline from the presence of sodic or
potassic carbonate. This alkalinity is sometimes exceedingly strong in the
unignited residue; it is greatly diminished after ignition, but yet in many
cases remains very obvious despite the visible presence of gypsum crystals
in the solid residue.

These apparent discrepancies having become especially notable in con-
nection with the analyses of the natural " alkali salts " in the soils of the
Pacific slope, it became necessary to investigate the conditions governing
them in a definite manner. The more as the use of gypsum recommended
by me as. an antidote to alkaline carbonates in the soil seemed , to be in
danger of becoming of doubtful value, though in many cases proved to be
of excellent effect in practice.

The investigation of this somewhat comple:^ subject, involving the
mutual reactions particularly of alkaline sulphates and chlorides with the
carbonates of calcium and magnesium under different conditions of con-
centration, temperature, pressure, and relative proportion, in the presence
of carbonic acid, has been zealously begun by Mr. A. H. Weber, Assist-
ant in the Agricultural Laboratory of the University of California; and
the results and discussion of some of the preliminary experiments are
here communicated. — E. W. H.]

Concerning the mutual reaction of alkaline carbonates and salts of lime,
Rose states pointedly (Pogg. Annalen, vol. 95, p. 289), that the earth salt
is precipitated completely as carbonate; and saving the consideration of
the solubility of calcic carbonate in water, he recommends this reaction
for the quantitative determination of the earth, without special limitation
as to dilution.

Yet in 1826 already, Brandes (Schweigger's Journal, vol. 43, p. 156, as
quoted in Storer's Dictionary of Solubilities) had called attention to the
fact that calcic carbonate is not precipitated from solutions containing
only one part in six thousand to seven thousand of water. This effect
appears to have been ascribed by him, as well as by Storer and others, in
this and other cases, to the "solvent effect" of the soluble salts upon the

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY. 53

calcic carbonate. The nature of this supposed solvent effect is not dis-
cussed; but it appears that the data thus obtained for the solubility of
calcic carbonate differ widely from those obtained by direct experiment.

These data refer to the " neutral " or mono-carbonates of soda and potash.*
But however abundant in the solid state, these mono-carbonates can hardly
be assumed to occur by themselves in any natural waters, and least of all
in the soil solutions. The air of the soil being always largely charged
with carbonic gas, the formation of more highly carbonated alkali salts
must be the rule instead of the exception, whenever the conditions for the
formation of such carbonates exist.

The unstable bi-carbonates will exist only under exceptional conditions
of excess of carbonic acid, as in the case of carbonated waters. Else-
where we must, as a rule, expect to find mixtures of the alkali mono- and
sesqui-carbonates in varying proportions, according to conditions of tem-
perature, supply of carbonic acid gas, and other conditions presently to be
considered. It is well known that while the sodic bi-carbonate, for example,
readily loses a portion of its carbonic acid on exposure to even a moder-
ately high temperature, the complete expulsion of the carbonic acid in
excess of that corresponding to the mono-carbonate, or what is equivalent,
the decomposition of the sesqui-carbonate into the mono-carbonate and free
carbonic acid, is accomplished only at a low red heat in the dry way, and
cannot be brought about by the boiling of the solution.

Hence, the residues from the evaporation of natural alkaline waters will,
as a rule, contain a certain variable proportion of sesqui-carbonate when-
ever in that evaporation the deposition of the earthy carbonates gives proof
that excess of free carbonic acid has been present. We are thus obliged,
in seeking an explanation of the apparently abnormal occurrence of gyp-
sum in such residues, to consider, not so much the behavior of the earth
salts toward the mono-carbonate, but rather towards the more highly car-
bonated (bi- and sesqui-) compounds, and often in presence of free carbonic
acid besides.

How greatly these conditions may serve to change the reactions to be
looked for, appears from a simple experiment originally indicated by Alex-
ander Miiller (Kgl. Vetensk. Akad Forhandl., Stockholm, Nov., 1859; Jour,
pr. Chem., vol. 82, p. 53), who, however, did not pursue the subject into its
ulterior consequences. When a dilute neutral solution of sodic sulphate
is brought in contact with calcic carbonate in the powdery form (precipi-
tated, or powdered marble) no reaction ensues. But when carbonic gas is
now passed into the mixture, the neutral reaction of the solution soon
changes to a decidedly alkaline one, and gypsum passes into the precipitate.

The following is the record of experiments made by us in the premises:

Five grams precipitated calcic carbonate was introduced into solutions
of chlorides and sulphates of sodium and potassium having a perfectly
neutral reaction and varying in strength from one to ten grams per liter.
Carbonic gas was then passed into the solutions at the ordinary temperature,
during a time varying from ten minutes to two hours. In all cases a decid-
edly alkaline reaction ensued, covered at first by the presence of free car-
bonic acid; becoming perceptible even after a ten-minute treatment, but
increasing decidedly with time. Upon the addition of alcohol to the extent
of 50 to 60 per cent, a white gelatinous precipitate of gypsum and calcic

*For the sake of simplifying discussion, the compounds here discussed are named and
treated as though consisting, according to the older views, of basic oxides, and acids.
Whatever view may be held of their ultimate molecular structure, this point of view is
almost necessarily maintained in analytical and agricultural chemistry, to avoid endless
and pedantic circumlocution.

54 REPORTS OP EXAMINATIONS OP

carbonate formed, becoming crystalline so as to be easily recognized and
filtered, after a lapse of twelve hours.

This fundamental experiment, which well deserves a place on the lecture
table, is interesting from many points of view. The production of an alka-
line reaction by the addition of an acid is odd enough to our sense of chemi-
cal propriety. It becomes still more striking when, in lieu of evolving the
carbonic gas outside of the solution, it is set free from the calcic carbonate
present in the mixture, by the gradual and cautious addition of chlorhy-
dric acid, taking care to leave a sufficient excess of the earth salt undis-
solved. Again we obtain a strongly alkaline reaction, as the result of the
addition of one of our strongest acids to a neutral mixture.

But its function as a piece of chemical legerdemain is a small part of
the merit of this experiment. When it is considered that the two sodium
salts — the chloride and sulphate — are the most common and abundant
ingredients produced by the leaching of rocks and soils in the process of
weathering, while calcic and magnesic carbonates, with free carbonic acid,
are almost omnipresent, the possible importance of the reactions between
these compounds under varying conditions of temperature, pressure, dilu-
tion and relative proportion, is readily appreciated. It is not a little singu-
lar that among the many who have investigated the subject of chemical
geology, mineral waters, the formation of mineral veins and the chemistry
of soils, this remarkable reaction seems to have remained almost unnoticed.
Even in the late and excellent work of Storer, we find that the reaction
whereby (as is alleged) " a little caustic (sic) soda is formed in compost
heaps containing a mixture of salt and lime," is supposed to be dependent
upon the porous nature of the materials admixed, rendering a dialytic dif-
fusion and local separation of the soda from calcic chloride possible; since
" if lime and salt were to be mixed in a bucket of water, the reaction would
not occur." Further on (Agriculture, vol. 2, p. 169), the author goes on
to say that, " it is seen in alkali deserts that the reaction between salt and
limestone (sic) does really occur in nature." This is the strongest state-
ment in the premises that we have been able to find in the literature bear-
ing on the subject. But Storer evidently assumes that either caustic lime or
calcic carbonate may act in the manner specified, and overlooks the indis-
pensable cooperation of carbonic acid. When that is present, the reaction
does occur in the bucket of water, and no porous bodies or dialytic diffusion
need be called in; and in the soil, and a fortiori in the compost heap, there
is no lack of that agent.

A long vista of cases in which this reaction evidently plays a part, opens
up before us; and the investigation of its limitations by physical conditions
and the presence of other substances involves the possibilities of permuta-
tions and combinations enough to form the work of several lifetimes.

In order to gain some insight into the drift and limitations of these, we
have made a number of preliminary quantitative experiments with solu-
tions of varied degrees of concentration. Among these, the following, made
with potassic sulphate, are the most instructive:

The bulk of solution used was in all cases one liter; in this, precipitated
calcic carbonate was kept in suspension by constant agitation, while car-
bonic gas was being passed into it at a temperature of about 18° C,
usually for forty minutes. The first eff'ect was always a slight reddening
of the litmus, due to the carbonic acid; but generally this reaction changed
to alkaline during the first ten minutes, becoming stronger as time pro-
gressed. But comparative experiments showed that nothing was gained
in alkalinity by a longer passage of the gas than above indicated.

In each experiment 100 ccm. was decanted immediately after the clear-

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY.

55

ing of the magma and titrated for " total alkalinity," including the calcic
carbonate remaining in solution. When an alkaline sulphate was em-
ployed, the undissolved carbonate was tested for SOs, which in all cases
was found to be present.

Another portion of the decanted solution was evaporated to dryness, and
the residue weighed as a whole after drying at 110° C, afterward leached
and the filtrate titrated for its alkalinity.

Another portion was mixed with alcohol so as to carry its percentage to
about 60 per cent. This caused a gelatinous precipitate, which after twelve
hours standing condensed into easily recognizable crystals of gypsum and
calcic carbonate. The filtrate from this deposit was also titrated for its
alkalinity. The subjoined table summarizes these results:

EXPERIMENTS WITH POTASSIC SULPHATE.

Grams per Liter.

i

2

1

2

Evaporation residue 110 degrees per liter (grams)

0.837

0.35

9.95

2.875
100

1.195
0.50

14.10
5.75

100

1.619
0.45
12.25
9.70

83.6

2 735

Residuary alkalinity in same (ccm. Standard HgSO^)

Total alkalinity of decanted solution _.

0.75
14.10

Residuary alkalinity after precipitation with alcohol.-

Corresponding KHOO3 (per cent of total possible).--

12.90

55.6

The table shows that up to one half gram per liter, and beyond to a point
not yet ascertained, there is complete decomposition of the potassic sul-
phate, resulting in the formation of gypsum and potassic hi- (hydro-) car-
bonate. In a solution containing a gram of the sulphate per liter, only
83.6 per cent of the total possible amount of the carbonate is formed, and
in a solution of double that strength (two grams per liter) only 55.6 per
cent. But up to that point, and evidently some distance beyond, the
absolute amount of alkaline carbonate is still on the increase; its ultimate
limit remains to be ascertained.

The irregularity of the figures for "total alkalinity " and for the alka-
linity of the residue dried at 110° shows that a uniform degree of satura-
tion of the solution with calcic carbonate had not been attained, and that
either the temperature of drying the residue was not entirely uniform, or
that the composition of the residue influences the alkalinity. But all
the evaporation residues were distinctly alkaline, in entire accord with the
observations made on natural mineral waters. The alkaline salt causing
the reaction is doubtless sesqui-carbonate.

It is hardly necessary to mention that on heating and finally boiling the
decanted solution saturated with carbonic gas, the alkalinity promptly
decreases; according to what law remains to be ascertained. But even
long boiling and evaporation with the calcic carbonate does not again bring
about neutrality. This cannot be done by any means short of actual igni-
tion of the mixed mass.

Behavior of Alkali Chlorides. — In the experiments with solutions of alkali
sulphates, the long known " tendency to the formation of difficultly soluble
compounds " in complex solutions might be called into play. But in the
case of the chlorides, the reverse tendency should be manifested; and yet
substantially the same reaction occurs. In presence of carbonic acid,
alkali carbonates are formed, and chlorides of calcium or magnesium;
and the reaction occurs at least as promptly as in the case of sulphates.
But our experiments in this direction have thus far been only qualitative,

56

REPORTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF

SO that we are not prepared to give any figures in the premises. Nor can
we as yet state whether the intensity of the reaction follows the molecular
weights of the two alkalies, or is governed by other conditions.

In view of the practical as well as theoretical interest attaching to the
subject, we intend to pursue it into its various ramifications as rapidly as
time will permit. For the present we present only one instance in which
a change now going on on a large scale in nature, is at once explained by
even the preliminary experiments reported above.

The three Lakes of the Upper San Joaquin Valley — Kern, Buena Vista,
and Tulare — were once connected, and the alkali contained in their waters
is manifestly of the same origin. Evaporation has for years past gradually
concentrated their waters, for want of the natural influx (Kern River) now
diverted by irrigation ditches. But analysis showed that apart from con-
centration, a change in the ratio between the soluble salts has been going
on as evaporation progressed. The cause of this change was not obvious.

The table below gives the results of the analyses made in 1880, and one
lately made of the water of Tulare Lake, which has likewise been seriously
diminished by evaporation so as to more than double its solid contents,
shows a difference has occurred corresponding to that which in 1880 existed
between Kern and Tulare Lakes. That is, the relative proportions between
sodic carbonate on one hand and common and Glauber's salts on the other,
have changed, and are tending toward the same ratio that then existed in
Kern Lake, evidently as the result of concentration. There has been a
relative diminution of the sodic carbonate; in conformity with the rule
shown in our experiments, above reported, that as the amount of neutral
alkali salts is increased, a relatively smaller amount of carbonate is formed
under the influence of CaCOs and CO2. The calcic carbonate required for
the reaction is abundantly present both in the waters and in the deposits
of the lake.

TABLE SHOWING THE INCREASE OF ALKALI CARBONATES BY CONCENTRATION.

Total Kesidue.

Carbonate of
Soda.

Common and
Glauber's Salt.

1880, Tulare Lake, near mouth of Kings River

1880, Tulare Lake, middle

1880, Tulare Lake, south end

1888, Tulare Lake, middle

*1889, Tulare Lake, north end

1880, Kern Lake

38.55

81.83

81.49

204.00

303.07

211.50

1.11
1.29
1.35
1.68
1.94
1.78

Doubtless a host of similar examples can be found within arid regions.
We hope before long to communicate additional results.

It may be necessary to remark that while the above table shows no con-
stant ratio between concentration and the proportion of alkali carbonate in
solution, the discrepancies are readily accounted for by the possible pres-
ence of other conditions that undoubtedly influence the relations between
the earthy and alkali carbonates; among these the prevailing temperature,
and the relative proportion of lime carbonate in direct contact with the
water, are probably the most important factors.

* Added to the table originally given, from the analysis reported above.

WATERS AND WATER SUPPLY. 57

Where the lake is shallow, not only will the temperature be higher
during the daytime, but the stirring up of the calcareous mud by the wind
will give opportunity for action for which the smallness of the '' chemical
mass " of earthy carbonates in actual solution may not be adequate.
Again, in the shallower parts of the lake the green vegetation of cellular
plants may materially influence the supply of free carbonic acid, that
plays the principal part in these cross-reactions. While, therefore, it
remains true, in a general way, that the alkali carbonates decrease with
greater concentration, many conditions may arise to make the exact pro-
portions vary quite materially, even within the same sheet of water; as is
actually shown to be the case in Tulare Lake by the comparative analyses
made of water from difl"erent portions of the lake, and samples taken at
different depths, as given in the Report of the College of Agriculture for
1880, p. 24.